Figure 3.

Group Means (± SEM) of Cognitive Performance Scores at Time Points T0–T3. FRS subscales, DST, and BIS represent z-scores, obtained across groups and time points after exclusion of outliers. Remaining values show composite z-scores, determined based on principal component analysis (PCA; see Methods and Supplementary Information). We did not observe group differences in linear change over time. Note that we applied modified versions of DST and CVLT (see Methods). Alertness = subtest ‘Alertness’ from ‘Tests of Attentional Performance’ (TAP), BIS = ‘Berlin Intelligence Structure Test’, COMBO = group undergoing cycling exercise and maze training, Covered shift of attention = subtest ‘Covered Shift of Attention’ from TAP, CTR = passive controls, CVLT = ‘California Verbal Learning Test’, DST = ‘Digit Symbol Test’, ERGO = group undergoing cycling exercise, FRS = ‘Fragebogen Räumliche Strategien’ (questionnaire to assess spatial strategies), huWMZ = human analogue of the ‘Morris Water Maze’, IST = ‘Intelligence Structure Test 2000R’, MAZE = group undergoing maze training, RT = reaction time, VVM = ‘Test of Visual and Verbal Memory Retention’.