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. 2018 Mar 12;8:4375. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-22545-w

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(A) Maximum negative potential excursion of the microelectrodes for each electrode design. Estimated charge injection limit (at −0.6 V) for each electrode: circle – 295.07 μC/cm² fractal – 510.507 μC/cm² serpentine I – 318.817 μC/cm² serpentine II – 359.527 μC/cm². Maximum driving voltage. Note that the fractal electrodes required significantly smaller amount of V_dr for any given injected charge levels.