Table 1.
Typical mycotxoins investigated in herbal medicines.
| Type of Mycotoxin | Source and Solubility | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Source | Solubility | ||
| Aflatoxin (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, AFM1) |
Main source:
Aspergillus Solubility: soluble in moderately polar organic solvents (e.g., chloroform, methanol, dimethysulfoxide), scarcely soluble in water (10–30 mg/mL) and insoluble in non-polar organic solvents |
[16,17,18] | [18] |
| Ochratoxins (OTA, OTB) |
Main source:
Aspergillus and Penicillium
Solubility: OTA: moderately soluble in polar organic solvents (e.g., chloroform, methanol) and dissolves in dilute aqueous sodium bicarbonate |
[16,17,18] | [18] |
| Trichothecenes (Type A trichothecenes: (T-2, HT-2, NEO, DAS), Type B trichothecenes (DON, NIV, DOM-1, Fusarenone-X)) |
Main source:
Fusarium, Myrothecium, Stachybotrys, Trichoderma, Cephalosporium, Trichothecium and Verticimonosporium Solubility: Type A trichothecenes: highly soluble in ethyl acetate, acetone, chloroform, dichloromethane and diethyl ether; Type B trichothecenes: soluble in methanol, acetonitrile and ethanol |
[18,19] | [18] |
| Zearalenones (ZEN, α-ZOL, β-ZOL, ZAN) |
Main source:
Fusarium
Solubility: ZEN: soluble in water, slightly soluble in hexane and progressively more soluble in benzene, acetonitrile, dichloromethane, methanol, ethanol and acetone |
[16,18] | [18] |
| Fumonisins (FB1, FB2, FB3) |
Main source:
Fusarium
Solubility: soluble in water, acetonitrile–water or methanol, and insoluble in chloroform and hexane |
[16,17,18] | [18] |
| Alternaria toxins (AOH, AME, TEA, TEN) |
Main source:
Alternaria
Solubility: AME: insoluble in aqueous NaHCO3 or water, slightly soluble in ether, sparingly soluble in benzene AOH: insoluble in hexane, light petroleum, benzene, aqueous NaHCO3 and water, more soluble than AME in ethanol, methanol, acetone TEA: slightly soluble in water TEN: slightly soluble in benzene |
[10,20] | [21] |
| Patulin |
Main source:
Penicillium Solubility: soluble in water, methanol, ethanol, acetone and ethyl or amyl acetate and less soluble in diethyl ether and benzene |
[18] | [18] |
| Citrinin |
Main source:
Aspergillus, Penicillium and related species Solubility: practically insoluble in water, soluble in ethanol, dioxane, dilute alkali, acetone, benzene, and chloroform |
[18] | [22] |
| Cyclopiazonic acid |
Main source:
Penicillium and other fungi species including Aspergillus Solubility: soluble in chloroform and dimethyl sulfoxide |
[18] | [18] |
| Sterigmatocystin |
Main source:
Aspergillus
Solubility: highly soluble in pyridine |
[18] | [23] |
| Gliotoxin |
Main source: a wide variety of widespread moulds Solubility: soluble in pyridine, dioxane, dimethylformamide, acetic acid, and chloroform, slightly soluble in benzene, acetone, carbonate trachloride, and ethyl alcohol |
[18] | [24] |
| Tremorgenic mycotoxins (Penitrem A, Verruculogen) |
Main source: a wide spectrum of fungi belonging to the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, Claviceps and Acremonium Solubility: Penitrem A: soluble in acetone, methanol and dimethyl sulfoxide. Verruculogen: soluble in benzene, ethyl acetate, and acetone, slightly soluble in ethanol, and very soluble in chloroform |
[18] | [25,26] |
| Penicillic acid |
Main source: several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium
Solubility: moderately soluble (2%) in cold water and in cold benzene, highly soluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform, and insoluble in pentane-hexane |
[18] | [27] |
| Chaetoglobosin A |
Main source:
Chaetomium globosum and some species of Penicillium Solubility: soluble in acetone, methanol |
[28,29,30] | [28,29] |
| Beauvericin and other enniatins (BEA, ENN A, ENN A1, ENN B, ENN B1) |
Main source:
Fusarium Solubility: having low solubility in water |
[31] | [31,32] |
| Moniliformin |
Main source:
Fusarium Solubility: soluble in water and polar solvents |
[18] | [18] |
AFB1: Aflatoxin B1, AFB2: Aflatoxin B2, AFG1: Aflatoxin G1, AFG2: Aflatoxin G2, AFM1: Aflatoxin M1, OTA: Ochratoxin A, OTB: Ochratoxin B, T-2: T-2 toxin, HT-2: HT-2 toxin, NEO: Neosolaniol, DAS: Diacetoxyscirpenol, DON: Deoxynivalenol, NIV: Nivalenol, DOM-1: Deepoxydeoxynivalenol, ZEN: Zearalenone, α-ZOL: α-Zearalenol, β-ZOL: β-Zearalenol, ZAN: Zearalanone, FB1: Fumonisin B1, FB2: Fumonisin B2, FB3: Fumonisin B3, AOH: Alternariol, AME: Alternariol-methyl ether, TEA: Tenuazonic acid, TEN: Tentoxin, BEA: Beauvericin, ENN A: Enniatins A, ENN A1: Enniatins A1, ENN B : Enniatins B, ENN B1: Enniatins B1.