Table 1.

Description of the main characteristics of the studies using flavonoids in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma in murine models.

Ref.	Country	Article	Plant family/species	Used part of plant	Flavonoids type	Extraction and purification method	In vitro assay	Animal model/strain	Sex	Age/weight	Administration/ frequency	Induction of carcinoma concentration/ volume	Tumor measurement/ frequency	In vivo analysis
Wan et al., 2014 [15]	China	Preparation of morusin from Ramulus mori and its effects on mice with transplanted H22 hepatocarcinoma	Moraceae/Ramulus mori	Root bark	Isoprenylated flavone (morusin)	Ethanol extraction/Sephadex gel LH-20 and RF-HPLC	?	Mice/SPF ICR	♂	3–5 weeks/18–20 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 10 days	Transplanted H22 cells 1 × 107 cells/ml/0.1 ml	Weight of tumor/2 weeks	H&E, qRT-PCR (P53, survivin, cyclin D1, caspase-3, NF-Kβ)
Shu et al., 2014 [16]	China	Kurarinol induces hepatocellular carcinoma cell apoptosis through suppressing cellular signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling	Leguminosae/ Sophora flavescens	Root	Kushenol H, kurarinol, norkurarinol, kushenol N, kurarinone	Ethanol extraction, HPLC and Sephadex LH-20 column	HepG2, Huh-7, Bel-7402 cells humans, HL-7702, H22 cells mouse	Mice/Kunming	♂	?/18–22 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 10 days	Transplant of H22 cells 1 × 106 cells/ml/?	Weight of tumor/experiment end	Serum (white blood, red blood cells, platelets, ALT, AST, BUN, uric acid, and CK), TUNEL, immunohistochemistry (STAT3)
Wang et al., 2014 [17]	China	Liquiritigenin induces tumor cell death through mitogen-activated protein kinase- (MPAKs-) mediated pathway in hepatocellular carcinoma cells	?/Glycyrrhiza radix	?	Liquiritigenin (LQ)	Purchased	PLC/PRF/5, HepG2 human cells	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♂	5 weeks/?	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 18 days	Transplanted PLC/PRF/5 5 × 107 cells/ml/0.1 ml	Volume and diameters of tumor (mm3), body weight/every day	?
Zhang et al., 2014 [18]	China	Dihydromyricetin promotes hepatocellular carcinoma regression via a p53 activation-dependent mechanism	?/Hovenia dulcis	?	Dihydromyricetin (DHM)	Purchased	HepG2, SMMC-7721, HL7702, L02 cells, primary cell: 4401, 4403, 1204	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♂	8–10 weeks/?	?/daily for 21 days	Transplanted HepG2 cells 1 × 107 cells/ml/0.2 ml	?	Immunohistochemistry (P53)
Darweish et al., 2014 [19]	Egypt	Chemopreventive and hepatoprotective effects of epigallocatechin gallate against hepatocellular carcinoma: role of heparan sulfate proteoglycans pathway	?/Camellia sinensis	?	Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)	?	HepG2 cell	Rats/Sprague Dawley	♂	?/180–200 g	?/twice for week for 16 days	Thioacetamide (200 mg/Kg b.w.)	?	H&E, immunohistochemistry (HSPGs), qRT-PCR (FGF-2), in serum (AST, albumin, and bilirubin), enzymatic determination (MDA, SOD, MPO, ELISA MMP-9, HSPGs, AFP, and syndecan-1)
Zheng et al., 2014 [20]	China/USA	Anticancer effects of Baicalein on hepatocellular carcinoma cells	?/Scutellaria sp.	Radix	Baicalein	Purchased	MIHAs, H22, BEL-7404, HepG2 cells	Mice/ICR	♂	?/18–22 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 12 days	Transplanted H22 2 × 105 cells/ml/0.2 ml	Weight of tumors/experiment end	Immunohistochemistry (AKT, p-AKT Ser473, β-catenin, cyclin D1)
Fan et al., 2014 [21]	China	Luteoloside suppresses proliferation and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma cells by Inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome	?/Gentiana macrophylla	?	Luteoloside	Purchased	Hep3B, SNU-449, Huh-7, SMMC-7721, MHCCLM3, MHCC97-H cell	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♂	6 weeks/?	Oral/daily for 4 weeks (subcutaneous) and 8 weeks (metastasis) groups	Transplanted SMMC-7721 2 × 106 cells 7/0.2 ml	Volume of tumor (cm3)/every 3 to 4 days	H&E
Feng et al., 2014 [22]	China	Effect of grape procyanidins on tumor angiogenesis in liver cancer xenograft models	?	Seed	Proanthocyanidins (GPC)	?	?	Mice/ SPF Kunming	?	4–6 weeks/20 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 10 days	Transplanted H22 cells 1 × 106 cell/ml/0.2 ml	?	Immunohistochemistry (VEGF and CD34), RT-PCR (VEGF and β-actin)
Zhang et al., 2013 [23]	China	Silybin-mediated inhibition of notch	?/Silybum marianum	?	Silybin (SIL)	?	HepG2 cells	Mice/athymic nude	♂	4–6 weeks/?	Intraperitoneal/5 times for week for 20 days	Transplanted HepG2 1 × 106 cells/ml/?	Size of tumor/every 3 days	Western blot (Notch1, Hes1, RBP-Jκ, survivin, cyclin D1, Bcl2, BAX, β-actin)
Yang et al., 2013 [24]	China	Antitumor effects of two extracts from Oxytropis falcata on hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo	?/Oxytropis falcata	Whole plant	Flavonoids (FOF) 2′,4′-dihydroxychalcone	Ethanol extraction/?	SMMC-7721 cells	Mice/ICR	♂	5-6 weeks/18–22 g	Intragastric/?	Transplanted H22 cells 5 × 106 cell/ml/0.2 ml	Tumor growth inhibitory ratio/experiment end	?
Yu et al., 2013 [25]	China	A study on the antitumor effect of total flavonoids from Pteris multifida poir in H22 tumor-bearing mice	?/Pteris multifida	Whole plant	Total flavonoids	Ethanol extraction/?	?	Mice/Kunming	1/2 ♂ and 1/2 ♀	?/18–22 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 10 days	Transplanted H22 cell 5 × 107 cells/ml/0.3 ml	Tumor inhibition rate and organ index (spleen and thymus)/experiment end	ELISA (TNF-α and IL-2), enzymatic determination (T-AOC, MDA)
Xiang et al., 2013 [26]	China	Chemical composition of total flavonoids from Salvia chinensia Benth and their proapoptotic effect on hepatocellular carcinoma cells: potential roles of suppressing cellular NF-kB signaling	?/Salvia chinensia	Whole plant	Total flavonoids	Alcoholic extraction 95%/HPLC and chromatography in silica gel column	HepG2, Huh-7 HCC cells	Mice/Kunming	♂	?/18–22 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 10 days	Transplanted H22 cells 1 × 106 cells/ml/?	Weight of tumor, organ index/experiment end	Automatic counting (red blood cells, hemoglobin, white blood cells, platelets), serum (AST, ALT, BUN, CK, uric acid), ELISA (caspase-3, caspase-8, caspase-9)
Hashimoto et al., 2014 [27]	Japan	Methylated-(3′′)-epigallocatechin gallate analog suppresses tumor growth in Huh7 hepatoma cells via inhibition of angiogenesis	?/Camellia sinensis	Green leaves	Polyphenolic, catechin, methylated-(3)-epigallocatechin gallate (MethylEGCG)	Purchased/HPLC purification	HUVECs, Huh7 cells	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♂	6 weeks/20 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 21 days	Transplanted Huh7 cells 5 × 106 cell/ml/?	Size, volume of tumor/every week	Immunohistochemistry (CD31)
Saleem et al., 2013 [28]	India and Saudi Arabia	Anticancer potential of rhamnocitrin 40-b-D-galactopyranoside against N-diethylnitrosamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma in rats	?/Astragalus hamosus	Leaves	Flavonol glycoside (rhamnocitrin 40-b-D-galactopyranoside RGP)	MeOH/H2O extraction/column Sephadex LH-20	?	Rats/Wistar	?	?/150–220 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 20 weeks	Single intraperitoneal dose of N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA) (200 mg/kg b.w.)	?	Serum (ALT, AST, ALP, total bilirubin, protein content, LPO), enzymatic determination (SOD, CAT, GPx, GST), H&E
Monga et al., 2013 [29]	India	Growth inhibition and apoptosis induction by (+)-Cyanidan-3-ol in hepatocellular carcinoma	Fabaceae/Acacia catechu	Heart wood	Cyanidan-3-ol (CD-3)	Ethanol extraction/HPLC	HepG2 cells	Mice/BALB/cA	♂	6-7 weeks/26-27 g	Oral/daily for 20 weeks	Single intraperitoneal dose of NDEA (200 mg/kg b.w.) and carbon tetrachloride (CCl4, 3 ml/kg b.w.) thrice a week for six weeks	Relative liver weight/experiment end	Serum (AST, ALT, ALP, γ-GT, TSA, LASA), enzymatic determination (MDA, SOD, CAT, GPx, GR, GST, T-SH, GSH, PrPr-SHs), H&E, immunohistochemistry (p53, p65, c-jun)
Zhao et al., 2013 [30]	China	Enhanced 5-fluorouracil cytotoxicity in high COX-2 expressing hepatocellular carcinoma cells by Wogonin via the PI3K/AKT pathway	?/Scutellaria radix	?	Wogonin 5,7-dihydroxy-8-methoxyflavone (WOG)	?	HepG2, SMMC-7721 cells	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♀	35–40 days/18–22 g	Intravenous/once every two days for 10 times	Transplanted SMMC-7721 cells 1 × 106 cells/mouse/?	Tumor inhibitory ratio, weight, size, volume of tumor/experiment end	?
Wei et al., 2012 [31]	China	Antitumor and antiangiogenic effects of Macrothelypteris viridifrons and its constituents by HPLC-DAD/MS analysis	?/Macrothelypteris viridifrons	Air dried roots	2-(1,4-Dihydroxy-cyclohexyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-chromone-4′-O-glucoside; protoapigenin-4′-O-glucoside; 2-(1,2-dihydroxy-4-oxo-cyclohex-5-enyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-chromone; 5,7,2′,5′-tetrahydroxy-flavanone-2′-O-glucoside; protoapigenin; 2-(1,4-dihydroxy-cyclohexyl)-5,7-dihydroxy-chromone; 5,7,2′,5′-tetrahydroxy-flavanone-2′-O-6′′-O-acetylglucoside; 5,6-dihydro-6-methoxyprotoapigenone; quercetin-3-O-rutinose; protoapigenone; apigenin-4-O-glucoside; kaempferol-3-O-rutinose; kaempferol-3,7-di-O-rhamnoside; kaempferol-3-O-rhamnoside; apigenin-4-O-rhamnoside	?/HPLC-DAD/MS Amethyst C18-P column	HUVECs, H-22 cells	Mice/Kunming	♂	?/18–22 g	Intraperitoneal/ daily for 10 days	Transplanted H22 cells 2 × 106 cells/ml/0.2 ml	Weight of tumor, tumor inhibitory ratio/experiment end	Serum (red blood cell, white blood cell, platelet and hemoglobin), BUN, CRE, AST and ALT, TSA, LASA, enzymatic determination (MDA, SOD, CAT, GPx, GR, GST, T-SH, GSH, PrPr-SHs), H&E, immunohistochemistry (CD34, VEGF)
Wu et al., 2011 [32]	Taiwan	Suppression of hepatitis B virus × protein-mediated tumorigenic effects by ursolic acid	Rubiaceae/Morinda citrifolia	Leaves	Ursolic acid and silymarin	?	Huh7, HepG2, Hep3B cells	Mice/nude	?	3 weeks/?	Intraperitoneal/?/8 weeks	Transplanted 6 2.2.15 cells 1 × 106 cell/ml/0.1 ml	Diameters of tumor/experiment end	Serum (ALT, AST, BUN, CRE)
Wang et al., 2011 [33]	Taiwan	Solanum nigrum L. polyphenolic extract inhibits hepatocarcinoma cell growth by inducing G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis	?/Solanum nigrum	Whole plant	Total flavonoids	Water extract (SNWE)/?	HepG2 cells	Mice/Athymic nude	?	?	Intraperitoneal/?/35 days	Transplanted HepG2 cells 5 × 106 cell/ml/0.4 ml	Volume of tumor/every week, final volume, wet weight of tumor/experiment end	?
Cai et al., 2011 [34]	China	Apigenin inhibits hepatoma cell growth through alteration of gene expression patterns	?	?	Apigenin	?	Huh7 cells	Mice/BALB/c nude	♀	5 weeks/16–18 g	Intraperitoneal/?/30 days	Transplanted Huh7 cells 2 × 106 cell/ml/?	Number of tumors, diameters, wet weight of tumor/experiment end	H&E
Huang et al., 2010 [35]	China	Carbonyl reductase 1 as a novel target of (−)-epigallocatechin gallate against hepatocellular carcinoma	?/Camellia sinensis	?	Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)	?	Hep G2, Hep 3B, SMMC-7721 cells	Mice/?	?	?	Injected/?/15 days	Transplanted SMMC-7721 cells and Hep3B/?/?	Tumor growth, body weight/?	Serum (ALT, AST, LDH, CK-MBB, LDH, MDA, cTnT)
Liang et al., 2010 [36]	China and USA	Green tea catechins augment the antitumor activity of doxorubicin in an in vivo mouse model for chemoresistant liver cancer	?/Camellia sinensis	?	Catechin and epigallocatechin-3-gallate	?	BEL-7404, BEL-7404/DOX cells	Mice/ BALB/cA nude	♂ and ??	4-5 weeks/13–17 g	Intraperitoneal/?/33 days	Transplanted BEL-7404/DOX HCC cells 5 × 107 cell/ml/0.2 ml	Dimensions of tumor, volume of tumor/every 2 days, tumor growth, body weight/experiment end	Fluorospectrophotometry (DOX), immunohistochemistry, RT-PCR (MDR1)
Zhou et al., 2010 [37]	China	Inhibition of hepatoma 22 tumor by liquiritigenin	?/Glycyrrhiza glabra	?	Liquiritigenin (LQ)	Purchased	?	Mice/ICR	♂	?/20–22 g	Intragastric/?/15 days	Transplanted H22 cells 10 × 106 cell/ml/0.2 ml	Size, volume of tumor, body weight/every 3 days, Inhibition ratio of tumor growth, weight of tumor, organ index/experiment end	H&E, electron microscopy (tumor ultrastructure), enzymatic determination (MDA)
Yang et al., 2009 [38]	China	Antiproliferative efficacy of icariin on HepG2 hepatoma and its possible mechanism of action	?/Herba epimedii	?	Icariin (5-hydroxy 4-methoxy 8-isopentenyl 3-O-α-rhamnosyl 7-O-β-glucosyl flavone)	Purchased	HepG2 cells	Mice/NMRI nude	♂	?	Oral/28 weeks	Transplanted HepG2 cells 1 × 107 cell/ml/?	Volume of tumor, tumor growth inhibition/twice per week	Immunohistochemistry (CD4, CD8, CD19)
Zhao et al., 2010 [39]	China	Synergistic effect of 5-fluorouracil and the flavonoid Oroxylin A on HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma and on H22 transplanted mice	?/Scutellariae Radix	?	Oroxylin A	?	HepG2 cells	Mice/Kunming	♂	?/18–22 g	Oral/?/7 days	Transplanted H22 cells 5 × 106 cells/ml/0.9 ml	Volume of tumor/experiment end	?
Cui et al., 2009 [40]	USA	Effects and mechanisms of Silibinin on human hepatocellular carcinoma xenografts in nude mice	?/Silybum marianum	?	Silibinin	?	HuH7 cells	Mice/nude	?	?	Oral/?/5 weeks	Transplanted HuH7 cells 5 × 106 cell/ml/0.25 ml	Volumes of tumor/every week, weight of tumor/experiment end	Immunoprecipitation (AFP, PTEN, binding interaction between p21, p27 with CDK4, binding of DP1 with E2F1), Western blotting (Ki-67, p21, p27, E2F1, CDK4, p-Rb, caspase-3, caspase-9, PTEN, AC-H3, AC-H4, p-AKT, p-survivin and p-ERK, Plk1, Chk1, SOD1), ELISA (NF-kB)
Umarani et al., 2008 [41]	India	Protective effect of Kalpaamruthaa in combating the oxidative stress posed by aflatoxin B1-induced hepatocellular carcinoma with special reference to flavonoid structure-activity relationship	Anacardiaceae/ Semecarpus anacardium	Fruit	Flavonoids	Dried and powdered fruit/?	?	Rats/?	♂	8–10 weeks/120–150 g	Oral/?/28 days	Intraperitoneal dose of AFB1 (2 mg/kg b.w.)	?	Serum (protein, LPO, lipid peroxides, G6PD, vitamin E, vitamin C, uric acid), enzymatic determination (SOD, CAT, GPx, GR)
Miura et al., 2007 [42]	Japan	Effect of apple polyphenol extract on hepatoma proliferation and invasion in culture and on tumor growth, metastasis, abnormal lipoprotein profiles in hepatoma-bearing rats	?/Malusdomestica	Unripe apples	Apple polyphenol extract (APE)	Purchased	AH109A cells	Rats/Donryu	♂	5 weeks/?	Oral/?/21 days	Transplanted AH109A cells 1 × 107 cells/ml/0.5 ml	Size of tumor/every day	Serum (T-Ch, HDL-Ch), LPO, fecal steroid, AI
Selvendiran et al., 2006 [43]	Japan	Luteolin promotes degradation in signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 in human hepatoma cells: an implication for the antitumor potential of flavonoids	?	Seeds	Luteolin	?/HPLC	HepG2, HLF, HAK-1B, IMR-32 cells	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♂	5 weeks/?	Oral/?/6 weeks	Transplanted HAK-1B cells 1 × 107 cell/ml/?	Size, volume (mm3) of tumor/weekly	Immunoblotting (Tyr705-P-STAT3)
Nishikawa et al., 2006 [44]	Japan	A green tea polyphenol, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, induces apoptosis of human hepatocellular carcinoma, possibly through inhibition of Bcl-2 family proteins	?/Camellia sinensis	?	Epigallocatechin-3-gallate	?	HLE, HepG2, HuH-7, PLC/PRF/5 cells	Mice/BALB/cA nude	♂	28 weeks/?	Oral/?/25 days	Transplanted HLE cells 1 × 106 cell/ml/?	Volume of tumor/daily	TUNEL, immunohistochemistry (Bcl-2a, Bcl-xl)
Premalatha and Sachdanandam, 1999 [45]	India	Semecarpus anacardium L. nut extract administration induces the in vivo antioxidant defense system in aflatoxin B1 mediated hepatocellular carcinoma	?/Semecarpus anacardium L	Nuts	Total flavonoids	Purchased	?	Rat/Wistar	♂	?/100 g	Oral/?/14 days	Single intraperitoneal dose of AFB1 (2 mg/kg b.w.)	Weight of liver and kidney/experiment end	Total protein, enzymatic determination (GSH, uric acid, vitamin E, vitamin C, CYP, T-SH, NPSH)
Nishida et al., 1994 [46]	Japan	Inhibitory effects of (−)-epigallocatechin gallate on spontaneous hepatoma in C3H/HeNCrj mice and human hepatoma-derived PLC/PRF/5 cells	?/Camellia sinensis	?	Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG)	?	PLC/PRF5 cells	Mice/C3H/HenCrj	♂	8 weeks/?	Oral/?/65 weeks	Spontaneous hepatocarcinogenesis	# of tumor, diameter of liver/experiment end	H&E, albumin, bilirubin, GPT, γ-GT, total cholesterol
Zhang et al., 2002 [47]	Japan	Effects of dietary powdered green tea and theanine on tumor growth and endogenous hyperlipidemia in hepatoma-bearing rats	?/Camellia sinensis	?	?	?	?	Rat/Donryu	♂	4 weeks/?	Oral/?/14 days	Transplanted AH109A cells 5 × 105 cell/ml/0.5 ml	Size, volume, diameter of tumor, radius tumor/every day, weight of tumor/experiment end	Precipitation method (HDL, LDL, VLDL), enzymatic determination (T-Ch and HDL-ChM, TBARS), fecal extraction (neutral sterol, bile acid)
Klaunig, 1992 [48]	USA	Chemopreventive effects of green tea components on hepatic carcinogenesis	?/Camellia sinensis	?	Epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epigallocatechin gallate	Methanol extraction/steel column with silicic acid	Primary cells mouse hepatocytes	Rat/B6C3F1	♂	?	Oral/?/28 weeks	Single intraperitoneal dose NDEA (90 mg/kg b.w.)	?	H&E

?: not specified; ♀: female; ♂: male; b.w.: body weight; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; H&E: hematoxylin and eosin histological staining; qRT-PCR: real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction; TUNEL: terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling; AC-H3: acetilated histone H3; AC-H4: acetilated histone H4; AKT: protein kinase B; P-AKT_Ser473: phosphorylated AKT serine 473; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2; BAX: Bcl-2 associated X protein; CD4: cluster of cuadruple differentiation; CD8: cluster of differentiation 8; CD19: cluster of differentiation 19; CD31: cluster of differentiation 31; CD34: hematopoietic progenitor cell antigen CD34; CDK4: cyclin-dependent kinase 4; P21: cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1; P27: cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B (CDKN1B); P-ERK: phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinases; Plk1: polo-like kinase 1; Chk1: checkpoint kinase 1; cTnT: cardiac troponin T; CYP: cytochrome P450; DOX: doxorubicin; DP1: transcriptional factor DP1; E2F1: transcriptional factor E2F1; Hes1: transcription factor HES1; FGF-2: fibroblast growth factor; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; IL-2: interleukin 2; Ki-67: Ki-67 antigen; MDR1: multidrug resistance protein 1; MMP9: matrix metallopeptidase 9; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; Notch 1: Notch homolog 1; P53: P53 protein; P65: nuclear factor NF-kappa-B p65 subunit; P-Rb: retinoblastoma protein; PTEN: phosphatase and tensin homolog; RBP-jk: recombining binding protein suppressor of hairless; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; Tyr 705-P-STAT3: phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; CAT: catalase; LPO: lipid peroxidation; MDA: malondialdehyde; SOD: superoxide anion; SOD1: superoxide dismutase 1; T-AOC: total antioxidant capacity; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; AFP: alpha-fetoprotein; AI: atherogenic index; ALP: alkaline phosphatase; ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; BUN: blood urea nitrogen; CK-MB: creatinine kinase-MB; CK: creatinine kinase; G6PD: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GPT: glutamic-pyruvic transaminase; γ-GT: gamma-glutamyl transferase; GR: glutathione reductase; GSH: reduced glutathione; GST: glutathione transferase; HDL-Ch: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; VLDL: very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HSPGs: heparan sulfate proteoglycans; LASA: lipid associated sialic acid; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; MPO: hepatic myeloperoxidase; PrPr-SHs: protein thiols; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; T-Ch: triglyceride; TSA: total sialic acid; T-SH: total thiol; NPSH: nonprotein thiol.