. 2018 Jan 25;8(2):65. doi: 10.3390/nano8020065

Table 1.

Application examples of nanoporous membranes for water purification ^a.

Membrane	Synthesis Method	Target and Efficiency	Water Flux	Ref.
PVDF	Electrospinning	NaCl (<280 ppm)	5–28 Kg m⁻² h⁻¹	[79]
Aquaporin reconstituted	Vacuum suction and amine-catrchol adduct formation	NaCl (66.2%), MgCl₂ (88.1%)		[81]
Zr-MOF	Solvothermal synthesis	Al³⁺ (99.3%), Mg²⁺ (98.0%), Ca²⁺ (86.3%)	0.28 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[83]
CNT-PcH	Electrospinning	NaCl (˃99.99%)	24–29 L m⁻² h⁻¹	[82]
MCM41-PA-TFN	Interfacial polymerization	NaCl (97.9% ± 0.3%), Na₂SO₄ (98.5% ± 0.2%)	46.6 ± 1.1 L m⁻² h⁻¹	[68]
GO-PA-TFN	Interfacial polymerization	NaCl (93.8% ± 0.6%), Na₂SO₄ (97.3% ± 0.3%)	59.4 ± 0.4 L m⁻² h⁻¹	[69]
K⁺-controlled GO	Drop-casting	Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, Na⁺ (~100%)	0.36 L m⁻² h⁻¹	[84]
Sigle-layer graphene	oxygen plasma etching	K⁺, Na⁺, Li⁺, Cl⁻ (~100%)	10⁶ g m⁻² s⁻¹	[20]
Ti₃C₂T_x Mxene	Electrospinning	metal cations and dye cations (diameter ≥ 6 Å)	37.4 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[80]
GO	Impregnation	Salt cations (6–46%), Methylene blue (46–66%), Raodamine-WT (93–95%)	27.6 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[85]
GO@PAN	Vacuum suction	Na₂SO₄ (56.7%), Congo red	8.2 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[86]
rGO	hydriodic acid vapor, water-assisted delamination	Cu²⁺, Na⁺, orange 7 (~100%)	12.0 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[87]
GO-based	Shear-induced alignment	organic probe molecules (˃90%), salt cations (30–40%)	71 ± 5 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[88]
bicontinous cubic	Self-assembly	${Br}^{-}$ (83%), ${Cl}^{-}$ (59%), ${SO}_{4}^{2 -}$ (33%), ${NO}_{3}^{-}$ (81%)	2.8–5.7 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[89]
NPN	Track-etching	Au nanoparticles (˃80%)		[71]
Cellulose	Freeze-extraction technique	Nanoparticles with diameter ˃10 nm	1.14 × 10⁴ L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[21]
CNT	Chemical vapor deposition	CdS (80%), Au (100%), TiO₂ (100%) nanoparticles		[91]
CNCs	Freeze-drying process	Victoria Blue 2B (98%), Methyl Violet 2B (84%), Rhodamine 6G (70%)	6.4 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[16]
VAMWNTs	Chemical vapor deposition	Lubricating oil	1580 L m⁻² h⁻¹	[92]
Ag-APAN	Electroless plating, surface modification	1,2-dibromoethane		[94]
CNs-SA	Thermal oxidation etching	Ethanol	2469 g m⁻² h⁻¹	[95]
PAA-g-PVDF	Phase inversion	hexadecane, toluene, diesel (˃99.99%)	15,500–23,200 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[57]
PSF nanofibers	Electrospinning, interfacial polymerization	Soybean oil (~100%)	5.5 m³ m⁻² day	[96]
uGNM	filtration-assisted assembly	99.8% of methyl blue and 99.9% of direct red 81	21.8 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[34]
GO	Vacuum suction	dimethyl carbonate (95.2%)	1702 g m⁻² h⁻¹	[97]
GO	Pressurized ultrafiltration	Ethanol (~100%)		[98]
GO-TiO₂	Self-assembly	rhodamine B, acid orange 7, humic acid (˃90%)	60 L m⁻² h⁻¹	[99]
MoS₂	Vacuum filtration	Evans blue (89%)	245 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[100]
WS₂	Vacuum filtration	Evans blue (˃90%)	730 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[101]
TiO₂ nanowire	Hydrothermal synthesis, hot-press process	polyethylene glycol, polyethylene oxide, HA, E. coli		[21]
rGO-CNT	Vacuum-assisted filtration	nanoparticles, dyes, BSA, sugars, and humic acid (˃99%)	20–30 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[103]
PMMA	Ultraviolet irradiation, acid rinsing	human rhinovirus type 14 (~100%)		[104]
MCCNs-PEI	Electrospinning	MS2 bacteriophage virus (99.99%), E. coli (99.9999%)	85 L m⁻² h⁻¹ bar⁻¹	[105]

^a PVDF: polyvinylidene fluoride; Zr-MOF: zirconium(IV)-based metal-organic framework membrane; CNT-PcH: carbon nanotube incorporated polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene nanofiber membrane; MCM41-PA-TFN: MCM-41 silica nanoparticles enhanced polyamide thin-film nanocomposite membrane; GO: graphene oxide; GO-PA-TFN: graphene oxide enhanced polyamide thin-film nanocomposite membrane; PAN: polyacrylonitrile; rGO: reduced graphene oxide; NPN: nanoporous silicon nitride; CNT: carbon nanotube; CNCs: cellulose nanocrystals; VAMWNTs: vertically-aligned multi-walled carbon nanotubes; APAN: polyacrylonitrile; CNs-SA: g-C₃N₄ nanosheets incorporated into sodium alginate matrix; PAA-g-PVDF: poly(acrylic acid)-grafted PVDF; PSF: polysulfone; uGNM: ultrathin graphene nanofiltration membrane; PMMA: polystyrene-block-poly(methyl methacrylate); MCCNs: microcrystalline cellulose nanofibers; PEI: polyethylenimine.