Table 3.
Prevalence Ratios of PDR in Participants ≥18 Years of Age by History of Prior ARV Use Using Poisson Regression With Robust Standard Errorsa
| Variables | Total (n = 951) | ARV Naive (n = 815) | ARV Experienced (n = 136) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Univariable
Regression |
Multivariable
Regression b |
Univariable
Regression |
Multivariable
Regression b |
Univariable
Regression |
Multivariable
Regression b |
|
| PR (95% CI); P value | PR (95% CI); P value | PR (95% CI); P value | PR (95% CI); P value | PR (95% CI); P value | PR (95% CI); P value | |
| Demographic | ||||||
| Gender (female vs male) | 1.63 (1.04–2.56); .033 | 1.48 (0.95–2.32); .086 | 1.58 (0.98–2.54); .058 | 1.48 (0.93–2.37); .100 | 1.69 (0.24–11.83); .597 | 1.19 (0.17–8.51); .864 |
| Age (5-year decrease) | ||||||
| Total | 1.14 (1.02–1.27); .022 | 1.12 (1.01–1.24); .037 | 1.11 (0.99–1.25); .082 | 1.10 (0.98–1.22); .110 | 1.35 (1.00–1.83); .054 | 1.34 (0.99–1.80); .056 |
| Males | 0.93 (0.78–1.12); .465 | 0.94 (0.79–1.13); .522 | 0.92 (0.77–1.12); .418 | 0.94 (0.78–1.12); .475 | 1.20 (0.89–1.61); .234 | 1.20 (0.82–1.75); .339 |
| Females | 1.20 (1.06–1.36); .004 | 1.20 (1.06–1.36); .004 | 1.18 (1.03–1.35); .016 | 1.18 (1.03–1.35); .016 | 1.36 (0.97–1.91); .076 | 1.35 (0.97–1.87); .072 |
| Location | ||||||
| Study Site (clinic) | ||||||
| Ngong Rd (Nairobi, urban) | Ref | Ref | ||||
| Industrial Area (Nairobi, urban) | 1.42 (0.78–2.60); .255 | – | 1.83 (1.00–3.38); .051 | – | – | – |
| Maseno (Nyanza, rural) | 1.32 (0.85–2.06); .212 | 1.37 (0.83–2.27); .221 | ||||
| Study Site (clinic location) c | ||||||
| Nairobi (Ngong Rd + Industrial) | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref |
| Maseno | 1.26 (0.82–1.94); .289 | 1.22 (0.79–1.89); .364 | 1.25 (0.77–2.04); .368 | 1.23 (0.75–2.02); .405 | 1.18 (0.47–2.99); .728 | 1.10 (0.45–2.70); .831 |
| Socioeconomic | ||||||
| Married/steady partner vs single | 1.08 (0.72–1.60); .710 | – | 0.99 (0.64–1.53); .979 | – | 1.55 (0.53–4.51); .417 | – |
| Education (1 years increase) | 0.96 (0.92–1.01); .118 | – | 0.95 (0.91–1.01); .082 | – | 1.00 (0.89–1.11); .934 | – |
| Unemployed vs employed | 1.68 (1.11–2.55); .015 | – | 1.46 (0.90–2.38); .125 | – | 2.56 (1.07–6.15); .035 | – |
| Monthly rent ($1 increase) | 1.00 (1.00–1.00); .889 | – | 1.00 (1.00–1.00); .909 | – | 1.00 (1.00–1.00); .975 | – |
| Flush toilet vs pit latrine | 0.88 (0.60–1.30); .516 | – | 0.84 (0.54–1.29); .420 | – | 1.12 (0.46–2.75); .795 | – |
| Persons living in house | 1.03 (0.94–1.12); .537 | – | 0.99 (0.90–1.09); .907 | – | 1.18 (1.00–1.40); .045 | – |
| Access to Care | ||||||
| Cost of travel ≥$2.00 vs <$2.00 | 1.05 (0.71–1.54); .815 | – | 1.04 (0.68–1.60); .857 | – | 1.01 (0.40–2.56); .981 | – |
| Travel time to clinic (1 h increase) | 0.92 (0.78–1.10); .365 | – | 0.89 (0.72–1.11); .321 | – | 1.05 (0.72–1.53); .814 | – |
| Sexual risk behavior | ||||||
| Age of sexual debut (1 year increase) | 0.97 (0.92–1.04); .421 | – | 0.99 (0.93–1.06); .825 | – | 0.88 (0.72–1.07); .188 | – |
| Lifetime sex partners (1 increase) | 1.00 (1.00–1.00); .400 | – | 1.00 (1.00–1.00); .285 | – | 0.99 (0.98–1.01); .436 | – |
| Ever exchange money for sex | 0.80 (0.31–2.09); .651 | – | 0.69 (0.23–2.12); .520 | – | 1.64 (0.27–10.1); .595 | – |
Abbreviations: PDR, pretreatment drug resistance; ARV, antiretroviral; PR, prevalence ratio; CI, confidence interval; Ref, reference category
aPRs with P value < .05 are shown in bold.
bThe PDR PR by location was adjusted for both age and sex in multivariable regression. The PDR PR by location stratified by sex and adjusted for age showed similar results and are not presented. Analyses adjusting for additional variables showed similar results to univariate analyses and are not presented.
cIndustrial Area had no ARV-experienced participants with PDR so location was defined Maseno vs Nairobi in multivariable analyses.