Fig. 1.

Visualization of the measures included in the study analyses. We first consider the effect of maternal social support (in light gray) on offspring maltreatment (in dark gray), with the combination of maternal childhood maltreatment and postpartum intimate partner violence (in white) as a potential moderator. We then consider the effect of paternal involvement in middle childhood (in light gray) on offspring physical violence perpetration in young adulthood (in dark gray), with offspring maltreatment (in dark gray) as a potential moderator and controlling for maternal childhood maltreatment, IPV, and social support.

Note: ‘M’ indicates maternal age, ‘O’ indicates offspring age.