Fig. 3.

Adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the association between paternal involvement at ages 9–10 years and offspring physical violence perpetration at ages 18–20 years, by offspring maltreatment at ages 0–8 years, including maltreatment timing and type (n = 11,384)^a.

^aEach model was adjusted for maternal postpartum social support, maternal history of childhood maltreatment and postpartum IPV, offspring sex, parental education, parental occupational class, maternal marital status, and maternal age at delivery.