Figure 5.

Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF) is a pro-tumoral cytokine. TNF may promote cell transformation and tumor growth by increasing DNA damage and mutations, abnormal cell proliferation, and neovascularization. TNF may also favor tumor cell dissemination by increasing matrix metalloproteinase production and vascular permeability and leakiness. By recruiting macrophages and neutrophils in the tumor environment that release inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, TNF may promote growth of tumors that respond to these inflammatory factors. Finally, by boosting the activity of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and regulatory T cells (Treg) in the tumor environment, TNF may indirectly suppress antitumor immunity.