Table 2.
Records of insecticide resistance in Aedes species (1990 onwards) from African mainland countries and islands. Resistance is classified according to WHO standards as resistant (R) < 90% mortality, suspected resistance (RS) 90–97% mortality, or susceptible (S) > 97% mortality in adult (a) tube or larval (l) bioassays. Brief details of resistance mechanisms are shown where reported. Studies are ordered by species, then from North-West toward South-East. Blank cells indicate that the phenotype or mechanism was not investigated.
| Study | Year | Country | Area | Species | DDT (a) | Pyr I (a) | Pyr II (a) | Carb (a) | OP (a) | Temephos (l) | Bti (l) | Other (l) | kdr Mutations | Metabolic Resistance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [162] | 2013 | Madeira | Funchal, Paul do Mar | Ae. aegypti | R | R | R | R, S | F1534C; V1016I | MFO, esterases (biochemistry); PBO, DEM significant (synergist; metabolizing genes overexpressed) | ||||
| [43] | 2009 | Cape Verde | Santiago | Ae. aegypti | R | S | S | R | S | |||||
| [163] | 2012 | Cape Verde | Santiago, Praia | Ae. aegypti | R | S | S | Not detected | MFO, esterases, GSTs (biochemistry) | |||||
| [63] | 2009 | Senegal | Dakar | Ae. aegypti | R | S | R, RS | R | S | |||||
| [52] | 2010 | Côte d’Ivoire | Abidjan | Ae. aegypti | S | RS, S | R, RS | |||||||
| [46] | 2014 | Côte d’Ivoire | Abidjan | Ae. aegypti | R | S | RS | RS | S (DDT, Pyr) | |||||
| [164] | 2012–2013 | Ghana | Accra | Ae. aegypti | R | R | R | |||||||
| [51] | 2013–2014 | Ghana | Widespread | Ae. aegypti | R | R, RS, S | F1534C; V1016I | |||||||
| [51] | 2013–2014 | Ghana | Widespread | Aedes aedes formosus | R | R, RS, S | F1534C | |||||||
| [37] | 2011–2012 | Nigeria | Lagos | Ae. aegypti | R | S | RS, S | |||||||
| [60] | 2013 | Nigeria | Kwara State | Ae. aegypti | S | S | R | |||||||
| [49] | 2007 | Cameroon | Widespread | Ae. aegypti | RS | S | S | S | S | S | ||||
| [71] | 2015–2016 | Cameroon | Yaoundé | Ae. aegypti | R | S | R | R, S | S | Not detected | Limited effect of synergist PBO | |||
| [58] | 2013 | Central African Rep. | Bangui | Ae. aegypti | R, RS | RS, S | S | S | S | S | Not detected | MFO, esterases, GSTs (biochemistry) | ||
| [49] | 2007 | Gabon | Libreville | Ae. aegypti | R | S | S | S | S | S | ||||
| [48] | 2009, 2010 | Sudan | Port Sudan | Ae. aegypti | R | RS, S | S | R, RS | ||||||
| [165] | 2015 | Tanzania | Dar es Salaam | Ae. aegypti | R, RS | R, RS | ||||||||
| [166] | 2010–2011 | Mayotte | Petit Terre | Ae. aegypti | S | S | S | S (multiple) | ||||||
| [49] | 2007 | Cameroon | Widespread | Ae. albopictus | R | RS, S | S | S | S | S | ||||
| [71] | 2015–2016 | Cameroon | Yaounde | Ae. albopictus | R | R, S | R, RS | R, RS | S | Not detected | Variable effect of synergist PBO among locales | |||
| [58] | 2014 | CAR | Bangui | Ae. albopictus | R, RS, S | R, RS, S | RS, S | RS, S | S | S | Not detected | MFO, esterases, GSTs (biochemistry) | ||
| [49] | 2007 | Gabon | Libreville | Ae. albopictus | S | |||||||||
| [61] | 2010–2011 | Mayotte | Kaweni | Ae. albopictus | S | S | S | S (multiple) |
Abbreviations: DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane); Pyr (pyrethroid); Carb (carbamate); OP (organophosphates); MFO (mixed function oxidases); PBO (piperonyl butoxide); DEM (diethyl maleate); GST (glutathione S-transferase).