Table 1.

Ketone Body efficacy in in vivo and in vitro models of seizures and hyperexcitability.

In vivo	Acetone	AcAc	BHB	References
Induced Seizures
Thujone	+	+	−	a, b
Audiogenic	+	+ (BD-AcAc2, AS mice)	−	c, m
MES	+	N.D.	N.D.	d
PTZ	+	+ (BD-AcAc2)	N.D.	d, e, g, k, l
Amygdala Kindling	+	N.D.	N.D.	d
AY-9944	+	N.D.	N.D.	d
4-AP	+	+	N.D.	e, h
Li-pilo SE	+	N.D.	N.D.	f
Hyperbaric Oxygen	N.D.	+ (BD-AcAc2)	− (1,3-butandiol)	j
Kainate	N.D.	+ (BD-AcAc2, AS mice)	N.D.	m
Repeated flurothyl	N.D.	N.D.	+ (rat neonates)	n
Spontaneous Seizures
Intrahippocamapal Kainate	N.D.	+	N.D.	i
betamethasone-NMDA	N.D.	N.D.	+	o
Kcna1-null mice	N.D.	N.D.	+	p

In vitro	Acetone	AcAc	BHB	References

Cellular and population excitability
mEPSCs	N.D.	+	N.D.	h
Field Potentials	N.D.	−	−	q, p, s
Population Spikes	N.D.	−	−	q, s
LTP	N.D.	−	−	p, r, s
Mitochondrial mediated synaptic dysfunction
ETC inhibitors	N.D.	+	+	p, r, v
ROS	N.D.	+	+	p, u, v
Induced Seizure-like events in slices
4-AP	N.D.	N.D.	−	w
Low Mg²⁺	N.D.	N.D.	−	t, w
PTZ	N.D.	−	−	t
bicuculline	N.D.	N.D.	−
High frequency stimulation	N.D.	N.D.	−	w
OGD	N.D.	N.D.	+	w
Kcna1-null mice	N.D.	+	+	p

Abbreviations: AcAc, acetoacetate; BHB, β-hydroxybutyrate; MES, maximal electroshock; PTZ, pentylenetetrazole; 4-AP, 4-aminopyridine; Li-pilo, lithium pilocarpine; SE, status epilepticus; HFS, high-frequency stimulation; OGD, Oxygen-glucose deprivation; N.D., not determined; +, attenuation effect; −, inactive; BD-AcAc2, R,S-1,3-butanediol acetoacetate diester; AS, Angelman syndrome; mESPC, miniature excitatory post-synaptic current; LTP, long-term potentiation; ETC, electron transport chain; ROS, reactive oxygen species.

a. Keith, 1933

b. Keith, 1935

c. Rho et al., 2002

d. Likhodii et al., 2003

e. Gasior et al., 2007

f. Inoue et al., 2009

g. Hasebe et al. 2010

h. Juge et al., 2010

i. Kadowaki et al., 2017

j. D’Agostino et al., 2013

k. Viggiano et al., 2015

l. Viggiano et al., 2016