Table 5.
Effect of the interventions on communication and executive functions after 2 years
| N, mean (SD) | Mean difference vs control group (95% CI) | Mean difference vs combined water, sanitation, and handwashing group (95% CI) | Mean difference vs nutrition group (95% CI) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories | |||||
| Comprehension score | |||||
| Control | 1106, 0·00 (1·00) | 0 (ref) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water | 535, 0·18 (0·88) | 0·20 (0·08 to 0·32) | ·· | ·· | |
| Sanitation | 524, 0·16 (0·87) | 0·18 (0·05 to 0·31) | ·· | ·· | |
| Handwashing | 519, 0·21 (0·80) | 0·22 (0·11 to 0·33) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water, sanitation, and handwashing | 513, 0·18 (0·85) | 0·18 (0·07 to 0·29) | 0 (ref) | ·· | |
| Nutrition | 501, 0·19 (0·80) | 0·19 (0·08 to 0·29) | ·· | 0 (ref) | |
| Water, sanitation, handwashing, and nutrition | 528, 0·25 (0·86) | 0·26 (0·14 to 0·38) | 0·07 (−0·05 to 0·19) | 0·07 (−0·05 to 0·20) | |
| Expressive language score | |||||
| Control | 1106, 0·00 (1·00) | 0 (ref) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water | 497, 0·18 (0·88) | 0·18 (0·07 to 0·30) | ·· | ·· | |
| Sanitation | 473, 0·17 (0·90) | 0·17 (0·06 to 0·29) | ·· | ·· | |
| Handwashing | 472, 0·19 (0·86) | 0·19 (0·09 to 0·30) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water, sanitation, and handwashing | 470, 0·13 (0·97) | 0·11 (0·00 to 0·23) | 0 (ref) | ·· | |
| Nutrition | 461, 0·19 (0·86) | 0·18 (0·07 to 0·29) | ·· | 0 (ref) | |
| Water, sanitation, handwashing, and nutrition | 484, 0·19 (0·92) | 0·20 (0·08 to 0·32) | 0·07 (−0·07 to 0·22) | 0·01 (−0·14 to 0·16) | |
| Executive function | |||||
| Tower test Z score | |||||
| Control | 1106, 0·00 (1·00) | 0 (ref) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water | 582, 0·09 (0·99) | 0·09 (−0·01 to 0·20) | ·· | ·· | |
| Sanitation | 564, 0·01 (1·00) | 0·02 (−0·11 to 0·15) | ·· | ·· | |
| Handwashing | 559, 0·12 (0·90) | 0·13 (0·02 to 0·24) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water, sanitation, and handwashing | 566, 0·06 (1·01) | 0·06 (−0·05 to 0·18) | 0 (ref) | ·· | |
| Nutrition | 550, 0·07 (0·94) | 0·07 (−0·04 to 0·18) | ·· | 0 (ref) | |
| Water, sanitation, handwashing, and nutrition | 571, 0·11 (0·95) | 0·10 (−0·01 to 0·22) | 0·03 (−0·11 to 0·16) | 0·02 (−0·12 to 0·15) | |
| A-not-B test Z score | |||||
| Control | 1106, 0·00 (1·00) | 0 (ref) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water | 579, 0·17 (0·88) | 0·17 (0·06 to 0·28) | ·· | ·· | |
| Sanitation | 560, 0·10 (0·92) | 0·10 (−0·01 to 0·20) | ·· | ·· | |
| Handwashing | 555, 0·08 (0·94) | 0·08 (−0·02 to 0·18) | ·· | ·· | |
| Water, sanitation, and handwashing | 565, 0·05 (0·98) | 0·05 (−0·05 to 0·16) | 0 (ref) | ·· | |
| Nutrition | 545, 0·04 (0·95) | 0·04 (−0·06 to 0·14) | ·· | 0 (ref) | |
| Water, sanitation, handwashing, and nutrition | 568, 0·08 (0·93) | 0·07 (−0·01 to 0·16) | 0·01 (−0·10 to 0·13) | 0·03 (−0·07 to 0·14) | |