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. 2017 Sep 27;30(1):3–22. doi: 10.1016/j.joco.2017.08.009

Table 2.

Summary of studies according refractive errors in worldwide.

Country Size Place Age Refraction Myopia
 Hyperopia
 Astigmatism
<−0.5 ≤−0.5 ≥2 >0.5 ≥0.5 ≥0.75 ≥0.5
USA10 11,260 Los Angeles 3–5 Non-cycloplegic 21% 58%
China11 1839 Anyang of Henan 12.9–17.6 Cycloplegic 82.7% 7.5%
Norway12 224 Trondheim Mean 20.6 Cycloplegic 47%
China13 1565 Inner Mongolia 6–21 Y Cycloplegic 54.1% 15.5%
USA14 4144 Monterey Park >50 Non-cycloplegic 35.1% 40.2% 45.6%
Korea15 33,355 Seoul ≥5 Y Non-cycloplegic 51.9% 13.4%
China16 1415 Harbin ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic 38.5% 19.9%
New York17 4709 New York 40–84Y Non-cycloplegic 21.9% 46.9%
Puerto Rico18 784 Puerto Rico ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic 14.7% 51.5%
Netherlands19 520 Dutch 11–13 Y Non-cycloplegic 28% 8%
Netherlands19 444 Dutch 17–60 Y Non-cycloplegic 30% 10%
Bangladesh20 11,624 National ≥30 Y Non-cycloplegic 22.1 20.6% 32.4
India21 1414 Tamil Nadu >40 Y Non-cycloplegic 19.4% 39.7%
Australia22 148 Adelaide 44.8 ± 14.5 Y Non-cycloplegic 31.1% 33.1%
India23 11,786 Hyderabad ≤15 Y Cycloplegic 3.19% 62.62%
India24 3509 Chennai >39 Y Non-cycloplegic 27% 18.7% 54.8%
India24 3513 Chennai >39 Y Non-cycloplegic 16.8% 52.3% 53%
China25 8398 Shanghai 3–10 Y Cycloplegic 20.1% 17.8%
California26 1501 NHW Los Angeles and Riverside 6–72 M Cycloplegic 1.2%a 25.65%
California26 1507 Asian Los Angeles and Riverside 6–72 M Cycloplegic 3.98%a 13.47%
California27 2994 Los Angeles 6–72 M Cycloplegic 20.8%
California27 3030 Los Angeles 6–72 M Cycloplegic 26.9%
Australia28 1765 Sydney 6 Cycloplegic 13.2%
Australia28 2353 Sydney 12 Cycloplegic 5.0%
Brazil29 1032 Pelotas 7–15 Non-cycloplegic 13.4%
India30 4074 Hyderabad 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 4.1% 0.8% 6.30%
China31 5884 Beijing 5–15 Cycloplegic 14.9% 2.6%
Malaysia32 4634 Selangor 7–15 Y Non-cycloplegic 20.7% 21.3%
China33 2749 Anyang 7.1 Y Cycloplegic 3.9% 23.3% 25.6
China33 2112 Anyang 12.7 Y Non-cycloplegic 67.3% 1.2% 28.3
India34 1789 Hyderabad 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 51.4% 3.3%
India34 1525 Hyderabad 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 16.7% 3.1%
Australia35 1816 Sydney 6–72 M Cycloplegic 10.5% 28.9%
South Africa36 1939 Durban 35–90 Y Non-cycloplegic 37.7% 25.7%
Equatorial Guinea37 425 Malabo 6–16 Y Cycloplegic 10.4% U(3.1%) U(32.5%)
Rwanda38 634 Nyarugenge 11–37 Y Cycloplegic 10.2% 4.3% 4.4%
Ethiopia39 4238 Butajira 7–18 Y Non-cycloplegic 6.0% 0.33% 2.17
Ghana40 2435 Ashanti region 12–15 Y Cycloplegic 3.2% 0.3%
Kenya41 4414 Nakuru ≥50 Y Non-cycloplegic 27.4%
Nigeria42 13,599 Across the country ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic 16.2% 50.7% 63.0%
Morocco43 545 Morocco 6–16 Y Cycloplegic 6.1% 18.3%. 23.5%
Benin44 1057 Cotonou 4–16 Y Non-cycloplegic 91.9%
South Africa45 4890 Durban 5–15 Y Cycloplegic 4.0% 2.6% 9.6
Uganda46 623 Kampala 6 and 9 Cycloplegic 11% 37% 52%
Ethiopia47 811 Gondar 6–16 Y Non-cycloplegic 4.8% 1.6% 0.4%
South Africa36 520 (male) Durban 20–75 Y Non-cycloplegic 1.9% 5.8%
Ethiopia48 420 Debre Markos 7–15 Y Non-cycloplegic 5.47% 1.4% 1.9%
Ethiopia49 1852 Gondar 4–24 Y Non-cycloplegic 2.3% 1.3%
Brazil50 7654 Sao Paulo >1 Y Cycloplegic 25.3% 33.8% 59.7%
Brazil51 2454 Botucatu 1–91 Y Non-cycloplegic 33.8% 59.7%
Brazil52 1608 Rio Grande do Sul 7–10 Y Non-cycloplegic
Mexico53 317 Toluca 6–12 Y Cycloplegic 9.7% 5.4%
Brazil54 1024 Natal 5–46 Y Cycloplegic
Chile55 5303 La Florida 5–15 Y Cycloplegic 5.8%. 14.5% 27.2%
Wisconsin56 4275 Beaver Dam 43–84 Y Non-cycloplegic 49.0%
California57 431 Los Angeles >55 Y Non-cycloplegic 10.4% 24.8% 31.8%
China58 3070 Yongchuan 6–15 Y Cycloplegic 13.75% 3.75%
Malaysia59 705 Kota Bharu 6–12 Y Non-cycloplegic 5.4% 1.0% 0.6%
Singapore60 946 Singapore 15–19 Y Non-cycloplegic 73.9% 1.5% 58.7%
China61 1892 Xichang 11.4–17.1 Y Cycloplegic 0.2% 1.7%
China62 2480 Guangzhou 3–6 Y Cycloplegic 2.5% 20%
Nepal63 440 Kathmandu 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 31.0%
India64 Urban: 5021 Maharashtra 6–15 Cycloplegic 3.16% 1.06 0.16
India64 Rural: 7401 Maharashtra 6–15 Cycloplegic 1.45% 0.39 0.21
Cambodia65 5527 Phnom Penh 12–14 Y Cycloplegic 5.8% 0.7% 3.76%
Singapore66 1232 Tanjong Pagar district 40–79 Y Non-cycloplegic 38.7% 28.4%
Myanmar67 2076 Meiktila district ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic
Indonesia68 1043 Sumatra ≥21 Y Non-cycloplegic 13.9%
Japan69 3021 Tajimi >40 Y Non-cycloplegic 51% 27.9%
India70 2522 Andhra Pradesh 40–92 Y Non-cycloplegic 18.4%
South Korea71 22,562 Knhanes >20 Y Non-cycloplegic 41.8% 24.2
South Korea72 1079 Jeolla 8–13 Y Non-cycloplegic 46.5% 6.2%
China73 2255 Xuzhou 24–80 M Cycloplegic 48.1
Vietnam74 2238 Ba Ria – Vung Tau 12–15 Y Cycloplegic 20.4% 0.4% 0.7%
China75 1675 Heilongjiang 5–18 Y Cycloplegic 5.0% 1.6%
South Korea76 1532 Namil-myeon ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic 41.8%
Nepal77 2000 Kathmandu 5–16Y Cycloplegic 6.85
India78 4711 Not-available 30–100 Y Non-cycloplegic 20.5% 18.0&
Laos79 2899 Vientiane 6–11 Y Cycloplegic 0.8% 2.8% 9%
China,80 2422 Bai nationality 6–15 Y Non-cycloplegic 38.1% 22.8%
Singapore81 2804 Southeast district of Singapore 55–89 Y Non-cycloplegic 30.1 41.5a
Singapore82 2805 Southwestern Singapore Over 40 Y Non-cycloplegic 22.8% 35.9%
Thailand83 1100 Bangkok and Nakhonpathom 6–12 Y Cycloplegic 11.1% 1.4% 0.3%
China84 4979 Harbin ≥50 Y Non-cycloplegic 28.0% 8.9%
Singapore85 2974 Malay 40–80 Y Non-cycloplegic 27.4%
China86 4364 Guangzhou 5–15 Y cycloplegic 9.5% 5.8% 33.6%
China87 2256 Lanzhou 15–19 Y Non-cycloplegic 35.1% 0.2% 40.8%
China88 4439 Beijing >40 Y Cycloplegic 62.3% 19.5%
China89 2515 Yangxi 13–17 Y Cycloplegic 86.5% 1.20% 25.3%
India90 1062 Kanchipuram 6–16 Y Cycloplegic 21.4% 0.56
India91 2508 Tamil Nadu >39 Y Non-cycloplegic 42.4% 18.70%
India92 6447 New Delhi 5–15 Y Cycloplegic 7.4% 7.7% 10.19%
Nepal93 5067 Mechi zone 5–15 Y Cycloplegic 1.2% 2.1% 3.5%
Poland94 5724 Szczecin 6–18 Y Cycloplegic 13% 4.0%
Poland95 4422 Szczecin 6–18 Y Cycloplegic 13.3%
Sweden96 143 Gothenburg 4–15 Cycloplegic 6% 9% 22%
England97 2495 Not available 44–46 Y Non-cycloplegic 47.8 8.8a
England98
Northfolk		 7444 Not available 48–92 Y Non-cycloplegic 23 39.4a
Norway97 5792 Not available 38–87 Y Non-cycloplegic 19.4 33.7a
Greece97 1952 Not available 60–94 Y Non-cycloplegic 14.2 39.4a
France97 618 Not available 73–93 Y Non-cycloplegic 16.7 53.6a
Netherlands97 2662 Not available 14–87 Y Non-cycloplegic 21.2 27.4a
Germany97 14,069 Not available 35–74 Y Non-cycloplegic 31.9 23.9a
France97 576 Not available 76–92 Y Non-cycloplegic 19.1 51.1a
France97 2315 Not available 60–93 Y Non-cycloplegic 16.2 53a
Netherlands97 6566 Not available 55–106 Y Non-cycloplegic 16.4 52.3a
Netherlands97 2579 Not available 55–99 Y Non-cycloplegic 21.9 45.7a
Netherlands97 3530 Not available 46–97 Y Non-cycloplegic 32.5 28.8a
UK97 6095 Not available 16–85 Y Non-cycloplegic 31.4 26a
Germany97 2372 Not available 35–84 Y Non-cycloplegic 36.1 24a
England98 4488 Not available 48–89 Y Non-cycloplegic 27.8% 49.4%
Germany99 13,959 Gutenberg 35–74 Y Non-cycloplegic 35.1 31.8% 32.3
Spain100 417 Segovia 40–79 Y Non-cycloplegic 25.4% 43.6% 53.5
Greece101 1500 Athens 40–77 Y Non-cycloplegic 35.1% 14.40%
Sweden102 1045 Goteborg 12–13 Y cycloplegic 49.7%
Turkey103 21,062 Diyarbakir 6–14 Y Cycloplegic 3.2% 14.3%
Pakistan104 45,122 Rawalpindi 5–16 Y Cycloplegic 1.89% 0.76%
Turkey105 709 Eskisehir 7–8 Y cycloplegic 22.6% 11.0%
Iran106 1367 Mashhad >54 Non-cycloplegic 27.2% 51.6% 37.5%
Iran107 1854 Shiraz 7–15 Cycloplegic 4.35% 5.04% 11.27%
Iran108 201 Khaf 19–90 Non-cycloplegic 28 19.2% 14.3%
Iran109 1551 Bojnord 6–17 Cycloplegic 4.3% 5.4% 11.5%
Iran110 937 Sari 55–87 Non-cycloplegic 39.5%
Iran111 2098 Yazd 40–80 Non-cycloplegic 36.5 20.6% 53.8
Jordan112 1647 Tafila 12–17 Y Non-cycloplegic 63.5% 11.2%
Jordan113 1093 Amman 17–40 Y Non-cycloplegic 36.3% 5.67% 36.8%
Saudi Arabia114 1319 Riyadh 4–6 Y Non-cycloplegic 2.1%
Saudi Arabia115 1536 Riyadh 12–13 Y Non-cycloplegic 53.71%
Pakistan116 917 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa >30 Y Non-cycloplegic 2.5%
Iran117 4072 8 Cities 7 Y Cycloplegic 4.5% 3.04% 6.20%
Pakistan118 1644 Kohat 5–15 Y Non-cycloplegic
Iran119 2410 Tehran 7–12 Y Cycloplegic 4.9% 3.5% 22.6%
Iran120 1109 Dezful 6–15 Y Cycloplegic 3.4% 12.9%
Iran121 3675 Mashhad 4–6 Y Non-cycloplegic
Pakistan122 300 Haripur 5–20 Y Cycloplegic 14.9% 52.6% 28.4%
Pakistan123 533 Lahore 9–18 Y Non-cycloplegic
Iran124 2124 Khaf 16–65 Y Non-cycloplegic
Iran125 434 Aligoudarz 14–21 Y Non-cycloplegic 29.3% 21.7%
Iran126 1431 Mashhad 18–32 Y Non-cycloplegic 7.8%
Iran127 5020 Shahroud 40–64 Y Non-cycloplegic
Iran128 2048 Mashhad >15 Y Non-cycloplegic 22.36% 34.21% 25.64%
Iran128 765 Mashhad ≤15 Y Cycloplegic 3.64% 27.4%
Iran129 5903 Qazvin 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 65%, 12.46% 16.1%
China130 1269 Liwan ≥50 Y Subjective 32.3% 40.0%
Pakistan131 14,490 Nationally >30 Y Non-cycloplegic 27.1%
Iran132 5544 Dezful 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 3.4% 16.6% 18.7%
Pakistan133 2317 Kolkata 5–10 Y Non-cycloplegic 36.5%
Australia134 1936 Sydney 4–12 Y Non-cycloplegic 14.02% 8.4% 38.4%
Australia135 2535 Sydney 4–12 Y Non-cycloplegic 3.8% 6.5% 39.25%
Australia136 3654 Sydney 49–97 Y Non-cycloplegic 57% 37%
Singapore137 10,033 Singapore >40 Y Non-cycloplegic 38.9% 31.5%
Iran138 4864 Shahroud 40–65 Y Cycloplegic 30.2 35.6
Argentina139 1518 Buenos Aires 25–65 Y Non-cycloplegic 18.1%
China140 6491 Handan ≥30 Y Non-cycloplegic 15.9%
Iran141 4354 Tehran ≥5 Y Non-cycloplegic 21.8% 26% 29.6%
Iran141 4354 Tehran ≥5 Y Cycloplegic 17.2% 56.6% 30.3%
China142 4319 Beijing 40–90 Y Non-cycloplegic 20%
Taiwan143 2045 Taipei ≥65 Y Non-cycloplegic 19.4% 59%
China140 6491 Handan 40–79 Y Non-cycloplegic 22.9% 1.6%
Mongolia144 1617 Hövsgöl and Omnögobi ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic 19.4% 32.9%
Australia145 4744 Victoria ≥40 Y Non-cycloplegic 19.4% 18%
India146 5885 Central Maharashtra ≥30 Y Non-cycloplegic 17.2% 18%
Australia147 1884 Central Australia >20 Y Non-cycloplegic 17%
Norfolk Island148 677 Norfolk Island ≥15 Y Non-cycloplegic 17%
Maryland149 6000 10 Cities 45–84 Y Non-cycloplegic 11.1%
Iran150 815 Shahrood 6 Y Cycloplegic 20.5% 1.7%
Mongolia151 1057 Khovd 7–17 Y Non-cycloplegic
India152 1378 Bangalore 7–15 Y Cycloplegic 4.4%
Mexico153 1035 Monterrey 12–13 Y Cycloplegic 44%
Iran132 3490 Dezful 7–15 Cycloplegic 3.4% 16.6 18.7

Y: Year, M: Month.

a

Spherical equivalent (SE) worse than >0.75 diopter (D).