Table 3.
Covariate parameter estimatesa,b
| Happiness | SDQ total difficulties | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Females (n = 4765) | Males (n = 4903) | Females (n = 4762) | Males (n = 4901) | |
| Well-beingc | ||||
| No qualification | 0.24 (− 0.22, 0.69) | − 0.47 (− 0.90, − 0.03) | 0.71 (0.10, 1.30) | 1.50 (0.91, 2.10) |
| GCSE/Other qualification | 0.11 (− 0.24, 0.46) | − 0.40 (− 0.73, − 0.06) | 0.60 (0.15, 1.05) | 0.90 (0.44, 1.36) |
| A-level | − 0.21 (− 0.66, 0.20) | − 0.29 (− 0.67, 0.08) | 0.43 (− 0.09, 0.95) | 0.80 (0.27, 1.32) |
| Other higher Qualification | 0.02 (− 0.43, 0.46) | − 0.52 (− 0.97, − 0.08) | 0.21 (− 0.38, 0.80) | 0.45 (− 0.15, 1.04) |
| Degree (Ref) | ||||
| Unpartnered Mother | − 0.81 (− 1.12, − 0.51) | − 0.69 (− 0.98, − 0.39) | 0.51 (0.12, 0.91) | 0.88 (0.47, 1.29) |
| Partnered Mother (Ref) | ||||
| Unpartnered Father | −1.52 (−2.52, − 0.52) | − 0.60 (− 1.35, 0.15) | 1.37 (0.23, 2.49) | 0.77 (− 0.28, 1.81) |
| Partnered Father (Ref) | ||||
| Social Media Interactionc | ||||
| No qualification | 0.85 (0.60, 1.10) | 0.87 (0.62, 1.12) | 0.85 (0.59, 1.11) | 0.88 (0.61, 1.14) |
| GCSE/Other qualification | 0.84 (0.65, 1.03) | 0.62 (0.43, 0.80) | 0.85 (0.66, 1.04) | 0.62 (0.42, 0.81) |
| A-level | 0.56 (0.33, 0.78) | 0.59 (0.38, 0.81) | 0.57 (0.35, 0.79) | 0.60 (0.38, 0.82) |
| Other higher Qualification | 0.60 (0.36, 0.84) | 0.45 (0.22, 0.68) | 0.61 (0.37, 0.85) | 0.45 (0.22, 0.69) |
| Degree (Ref) | ||||
| Unpartnered Mother | 0.41 (0.26, 0.56) | 0.32 (0.17, 0.48) | 0.41 (0.26, 0.56) | 0.32 (0.16, 0.48) |
| Partnered Mother (Ref) | ||||
| Unpartnered Father | 0.12 (− 0.37, 0.61) | 0.37 (− 0.06, 0.80) | 0.15 (− 0.34, 0.63) | 0.37 (− 0.07, 0.82) |
| Partnered Father (Ref) | ||||
| Well-being Intercept | ||||
| Black African/Caribbean | 1.06 (0.38, 1.74) | 1.14 (0.25, 2.04) | −1.72 (−2.65, − 0.79) | −1.38 (−2.66, − 0.11) |
| Asian | 0.46 (− 0.16, 1.07) | 0.80 (0.25, 1.35) | − 0.91 (− 1.75, − 0.08) | −1.56 (− 2.39, − 0.72) |
| Other Ethnicity | 0.84 (0.003, 1.68) | − 0.15 (− 1.08, 0.79) | − 0.37 (− 1.62, 0.88) | − 0.37 (− 1.62, 0.89) |
| Mixed Ethnicity | − 0.67 (− 1.55, 0.20) | 0.42 (− 0.34, 1.17) | −0.10 (− 1.16, 0.96) | −0.83 (− 1.80, 0.14) |
| White (Ref) | ||||
| Mean Log Household Income | 0.11 (−0.33, 0.54) | −0.28 (− 0.71, 0.16) | −0.57 (− 1.20, 0.07) | 0.04 (− 0.63, 0.70) |
| Well-being Slope | ||||
| Black African/Caribbean | −0.05 (− 0.27, 0.17) | 0.004 (− 0.25, 0.26) | −0.02 (− 0.26, 0.21) | −0.20 (− 0.51, 0.11) |
| Asian | 0.18 (0.01, 0.36) | 0.31 (0.15, 0.47) | −0.16 (− 0.37, 0.05) | −0.12 (− 0.34, 0.09) |
| Other Ethnicity | − 0.14 (− 0.41, 0.13) | 0.14 (− 0.09, 0.36) | −0.28 (− 0.56, − 0.002) | −0.02 (− 0.31, 0.26) |
| Mixed Ethnicity | 0.04 (− 0.24, 0.32) | −0.15 (− 0.37, 0.08) | 0.08 (− 0.15, 0.32) | 0.11 (− 0.13, 0.34) |
| White (Ref) | ||||
| Mean Log Household Income | 0.06 (−0.06, 0.17) | 0.20 (0.10, 0.31) | −0.03 (− 0.17, 0.12) | −0.03 (− 0.18, 0.11) |
| Social Media Interaction Intercept | ||||
| Black African/Caribbean | −0.04 (− 0.44, 0.36) | 0.07 (− 0.53, 0.68) | −0.04 (− 0.44, 0.36) | 0.06 (− 0.54, 0.67) |
| Asian | −0.81 (−1.14, − 0.48) | −0.47 (− 0.80, − 0.13) | −0.80 (− 1.13, − 0.47) | −0.48 (− 0.81, − 0.14) |
| Other Ethnicity | −0.04 (− 0.50, 0.42) | 0.22 (− 0.27, 0.71) | −0.01 (− 0.47, 0.45) | 0.21 (− 0.28, 0.70) |
| Mixed Ethnicity | −0.53 (− 1.00, − 0.06) | −0.08 (− 0.57, 0.41) | −0.53 (− 1.00, − 0.07) | −0.09 (− 0.57, 0.40) |
| White (Ref) | ||||
| Mean Log Household Income | −0.34 (− 0.58, − 0.10) | −0.16 (− 0.41, 0.09) | −0.36 (− 0.60, − 0.12) | −0.16 (− 0.41, 0.09) |
| Social Media Interaction Slope | ||||
| Black African/Caribbean | −0.05 (− 0.17, 0.06) | −0.02 (− 0.14, 0.10) | −0.06 (− 0.17, 0.06) | −0.03 (− 0.15, 0.09) |
| Asian | − 0.27 (− 0.37, − 0.17) | −0.10 (− 0.18, − 0.03) | −0.27 (− 0.37, − 0.17) | −0.11 (− 0.19, − 0.04) |
| Other ethnicity | −0.12 (− 0.26, 0.01) | −0.10 (− 0.20, 0.004) | −0.17 (− 0.27, − 0.03) | −0.09 (− 0.19, 0.01) |
| Mixed ethnicity | 0.13 (0.01, 0.26) | 0.01 (−0.09, 0.11) | 0.14 (0.02, 0.27) | 0.01 (−0.09, 0.10) |
| White (Ref) | ||||
| Mean log household income | 0.08 (0.02, 0.14) | 0.05 (−0.004, 0.11) | 0.09 (0.03, 0.15) | 0.06 (−0.002, 0.11) |
Abbreviation: GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education, SDQ Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire
aOther ethnicity = Gypsy or Irish Traveller, Other White, Any other Asian background, Any other Black background, Arab, Any other ethnic group
bGCSE exams taken at age 16 (year 11); A Level exam taken at age 18 (year 13); Examples of other higher qualifications are teaching, nursing or diploma certifications /qualifications; Other qualifications include CSE, skill s certifications, apprenticeships, clerical qualifications, etc.
cAverage effects across age - covariate regressions were held to be equal across ages