Table 1.
Individual- and Neighborhood-Level Characteristics of the Study Sample (After Imputation), Kaiser Permanente Northern California Diabetes Registry, 2007–2011
| Characteristic | 2007 (n = 143,152) |
2008 (n = 143,152) |
2009 (n = 146,324) |
2010 (n = 145,328) |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean (SD) | % | Mean (SD) | % | Mean (SD) | % | Mean (SD) | % | |
| Individual-Level Variables | ||||||||
| Age | 61.9 (12.6) | 62.9 (12.6) | 63.7 (12.6) | 64.7 (12.6) | ||||
| Female sex | 47.0 | 46.8 | 46.9 | 46.8 | ||||
| Race | ||||||||
| Asian | 18.0 | 18.0 | 18.1 | 18.0 | ||||
| Black | 9.3 | 9.3 | 9.4 | 9.3 | ||||
| Hispanic (nonwhite) | 20.0 | 20.0 | 19.9 | 20.0 | ||||
| White | 46.2 | 46.2 | 46.0 | 46.1 | ||||
| Other | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | ||||
| BMIa | 31.6 (7.1) | 31.5 (7.2) | 31.5 (7.2) | 31.4 (7.2) | ||||
| HbA1c | ||||||||
| NGSP, % | 7.3% (1.4%) | 7.1% (1.4%) | 7.2% (1.4%) | 7.2% (1.4%) | ||||
| IFCC, mmol/mol | 56 (15.3) | 54 (15.3) | 55 (15.3) | 55 (15.3) | ||||
| Comorbidity score | 1.8 (1.2) | 2.0 (1.5) | 2.2 (1.6) | 2.3 (1.6) | ||||
| Using insulin, thiazolidinediones, metformin, or sulfonylureas | 66.0 | 67.9 | 67.4 | 66.7 | ||||
| Neighborhood-Level Variables | ||||||||
| Any supermarket presence | 54.0 | 54.0 | 52.6 | 52.2 | ||||
| Gained supermarket presence (vs. prior year) | 2.0 | 2.5 | 2.5 | |||||
| Lost supermarket presence (vs. prior year) | 2.0 | 3.8 | 2.7 | |||||
| Fast food and convenience store, no. in 1-mile network radius | 1.2 (1.2) | 1.1 (1.2) | 1.2 (1.2) | 1.2 (1.2) | ||||
| Physical activity venue, no. in 1-mile network radius | 1.5 (1.7) | 1.4 (1.7) | 1.4 (1.7) | 1.5 (1.7) | ||||
| Median home price, $ | 509,305 (216,743) | 483,864 (227,225) | 446,250 (232,101) | 413,092 (235,830) | ||||
| Poverty rate, % | 10.0 (9.7) | 10.4 (10.3) | 11.0 (10.6) | 11.7 (10.9) | ||||
| Population per square mile | 8,084 (8,396) | 8,298 (8,801) | 8,354 (8,866) | 8,396 (8,890) | ||||
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; IFCC, International Federation of Clinical Chemistry; NGSP, National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program; SD, standard deviation.
a BMI was calculated as weight (kg)/height (m)2.