Table 5. Factors associated with health-related quality of life and disability, study of the effect of depression on tuberculosis treatment outcomes, Ethiopia, 2014–2016.
| Factor | Quality-of-life scorea |
Disability scoreb |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crude β (95% CI)c | Adjusted β (95% CI)c | Crude β (95% CI)c | Adjusted β (95% CI)c | ||
| PHQ-9 score,d per 1-point increase | −0.08 (−0.11 to −0.05) | −0.07 (−0.07 to −0.06) | 0.92 (0.69 to 1.15) | 0.83 (0.67 to 0.99) | |
| Time after start of tuberculosis treatment | 0.05 (−0.06 to 0.16) | −0.02 (−0.13 to 0.09) | −0.95 (−1.29 to −0.61) | −0.07 (−0.33 to 0.22) | |
| Sex | |||||
| Male | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Female | −0.14 (−0.44 to 0.15) | −0.04 (−0.18 to 0.11) | 1.67 (0.48 to 2.86) | 0.51 (0.09 to 0.93) | |
| Age | |||||
| Below median | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Median and above | −0.39 (−0.94 to 0.16) | −0.10 (−0.47 to 0.28) | 3.37 (−0.42 to 7.16) | 1.26 (−0.78 to 3.29) | |
| Tuberculosis symptoms duration before diagnosis, weeks | |||||
| < 2 | 1.02 (0.31 to 1.72) | 0.42 (−0.27 to 1.11) | −6.89 (−11.13 to −2.65) | −2.37 (−4.08 to −0.66) | |
| 2–12 | 0.22 (0.05 to 0.27) | −0.18 (−0.76 to 0.40) | −2.88 (−4.41 to −1.36) | −0.77 (−1.98 to 0.45) | |
| 13–52 | 0.01 (−0.24 to 0.27) | −0.42 (−0.98 to 0.15) | −1.79 (−2.82 to −0.75) | −0.43 (−0.78 to −0.07) | |
| > 52 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Household income | |||||
| Below median | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Median and above | 0.98 (0.75 to 1.21) | 0.46 (0.45 to 0.47) | −1.39 (−2.67 to −0.11) | 0.07 (−0.04 to 0.18) | |
| Residence | |||||
| Urban | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Rural | −0.47 (−1.00 to 0.07) | −0.35 (−0.47 to −0.22) | 1.63 (1.10 to 2.15) | −0.01 (−1.20 to 1.19) | |
| Type of tuberculosis | |||||
| Pulmonary | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Extrapulmonary | 0.14 (−0.25 to 0.53) | −0.05 (−0.13 to 0.03) | −1.76 (−2.41 to −1.11) | −0.92 (−1.38 to −0.46) | |
| Educational level | |||||
| No formal education | −1.00 (−1.23 to −0.77) | −0.22 (−0.62 to 0.18) | 5.66 (2.43 to 8.89) | 1.47 (0.55 to 2.39) | |
| Primary education | −0.51 (−0.55 to −0.47) | −0.12 (−0.24 to 0.00) | 1.45 (−0.28 to 3.18) | −0.47 (−1.14 to 0.20) | |
| Secondary education or higher | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Perceived tuberculosis severity | |||||
| Mild | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Moderate | −0.27 (−0.52 to −0.03) | −0.38 (−0.43 to −0.32) | −0.26 (−1.37 to 0.85) | 0.22 (−0.80 to 1.23) | |
| Severe | −0.74 (−1.10 to −0.37) | −0.45 (−0.58 to −0.33) | 4.39 (3.23 to 5.56) | 2.54 (1.37 to 3.71) | |
| Perceived barriers to tuberculosis treatment | |||||
| No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Yes | −0.41 (−1.17 to 0.35) | −0.12 (−0.68 to 0.45) | 3.24 (2.18 to 4.31) | 1.44 (−0.05 to 2.93) | |
| Religion | |||||
| Christian | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Muslim | 0.09 (−0.06 to 0.24) | 0.11 (−0.12 to 0.34) | 1.48 (0.09 to 2.87) | 1.78 (1.66 to 1.90) | |
| Marital status | |||||
| Single | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Married | 0.06 (−0.94 to 1.07) | 0.40 (0.03 to 0.77) | 2.20 (−3.02 to 7.41) | −0.51 (−1.67 to 0.64) | |
| Widowed or divorced | −0.99 (−1.9 to −0.77) | −0.33 (−0.81 to −0.14) | 5.42 (−1.56 to 12.39) | 0.75 (−2.14 to 3.64) | |
| HIV status | |||||
| Negative | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Positive | −0.36 (−0.64 to −0.08) | −0.06 (−0.11 to −0.00) | 1.82 (−0.54 to 4.17) | 0.63 (−0.99 to 2.25) | |
| Unknown | 0.26 (0.23 to 0.28) | 0.23 (0.09 to 0.38) | −0.63 (−1.40 to 0.30) | −0.13 (−0.29 to 0.04) | |
| Alcohol usee | |||||
| Low | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Moderate or high | −0.09 (−0.46 to 0.29) | 0.13 (−0.55 to 0.82) | 0.68 (−0.28 to 1.64) | 0.96 (−0.06 to 1.97) | |
| Khat usee | |||||
| Low | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | |
| Moderate or high | −0.13 (−0.36 to 0.11) | −0.24 (−0.44 to −0.04) | −0.80 (−0.89 to −0.71) | −0.98 (−1.31 to −0.65) | |
| Perceived social support | |||||
| Oslo-3 scale score, per 1-point increasef | 0.27 (0.20 to 0.34) | 0.20 (0.14 to 0.25) | −0.39 (−0.82 to 0.04) | 0.05 (−0.36 to 0.47) | |
| Tuberculosis stigma scale score, per 1-point increaseg | −0.09 (−0.15 to −0.03) | −0.03(−0.08 to −0.01) | 0.45 (0.39 to 0.51) | 0.16 (0.15 to 0.16) | |
CI: confidence interval; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; PHQ-9: nine-item version of the Patient Health Questionnaire.
a Quality of life was assessed on the basis of responses to the question, “How would you rate your health-related quality of life?” and scored from 0 (worst) to 10 (best).
b Disability was assessed using the interviewer-administered version of the 12-item World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule, version 2.0 (score range: 0 to 60).23
c The β values were derived using a multilevel, mixed-effects, generalized linear model.
d Probable depression at baseline was defined as a score ≥ 10 on PHQ-9, on which scores ranged from 0 to 27.27
e The use of substances, such as alcohol and khat, was assessed using the World Health Organization’s Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test, version 3.1.31
f A high score on the Oslo-3 scale indicates better perceived social support.32
g A high score indicates greater stigma.