Table 2.

Studies that assessed the effect of dietary patterns on the chronic subclinical inflammation.

Reference	Study type	Population	Methods	Results
Ozawa et al. [15]	Cohort	5083 British overweight adult individuals	Validated FFQ; determination of factorial inflammatory loadings for food groups and identified two dietary patterns (pro- or anti-inflammatory)	Dietary pattern considered inflammatory characterized by red meat, fried foods, and lower ingestion of whole grains: ↑ IL-6
Kuczmarski et al. [40]	Cohort	2176 American adult individuals	24 h recalls; identification of the most consumed foods was grouped according to the similarity of their components and new dietary patterns were created; cluster analysis for definition of ten groups	All patterns displayed elevated (>3 mg/L) CRP, whereas the highest average was that of the “frozen food” pattern (7.2 ± 1.4 mg/L)
Corley et al. [13]	Cross-sectional (from a cohort)	792 Scottish elderly eutrophic individuals	Self-applied FFQ; dietary patterns as Mediterranean and conscious (high intake of fruits and carrots and low intake of embedded foods, eggs, pork, and liqueurs)	Highest score of the conscious dietary pattern and higher ingestion of fruits: ↓ CRP; highest score of the Mediterranean dietary pattern: ↓ fibrinogen
Kong et al. [5]	Case-control	45 overweight and obese adults	7-day (for overweight and/obese) and 3-day dietary record (for the control group); three dietary patterns were determined: Group 1 (less healthy, high consumption of beverages and foods high in sugar, fat, and salt); Group 2 (healthier, with higher consumption of water, yogurt, cereals, eggs, and nuts); Group 3 (healthier, with a fiber-rich diet, lower consumption of sugar, fruits, yogurt, and soups)	Group 3: ↓ sDC14, followed by Group 2 and Group 1; Group 3: ↑ DC163; no differences between the groups for the LPS, CRP, and IL-6 concentrations; higher consumption of fruits, green vegetables, and soups ↑ DC163
Lee et al. [32]	Cross-sectional	7574 eutrophic adult individuals	FFQ; 4 dietary patterns determined as standard: fruit, vegetable, meat, and coffee, according to the prevailing food	Highest score for the “vegetable” pattern: ↓ CRP; highest score for the “vegetable” pattern: ↑ ingestion of antioxidants
Bédard et al. [12]	Clinical trial	70 Canadian, overweight, adult individuals, with risk of cardiovascular disease	Four weeks following the Mediterranean pattern	Male individuals who displayed CRP values > 3 mg/L displayed a reduction over time; male individuals who displayed reduced CRP values (<3 mg/L), displayed an increase over time; no beneficial effect of the Mediterranean diet was observed for both genders
Abete et al. [49]	Case-control	51 healthy individuals and 51 individuals with history of stroke	FFQ; 2 dietary patterns determined as “healthy” and “not healthy”	Healthy individuals displayed greater adherence to the healthy dietary pattern, as well as ↓ CRP and ↓ leukocytes
McGeoghegan et al. [44]	Cohort	1531 healthy and diabetic individuals	4-day dietary record during 4 years; 2 dietary patterns determined: “1”—higher antioxidant and anti-inflammatory loads; “2”—lower antioxidant and anti-inflammatory loads	Dietary pattern “1” was inversely related to the CRP concentrations

FFQ: Food Frequency Questionnaire; IL-6: interleukin 6; CRP: C-reactive protein; sDC14: differentiation cluster 14; DC163: differentiation cluster 163; LPS: lipopolysaccharide.