Table 1.
Components of a Western diet and effects on the microbiota and/or host physiology. This is not an exhaustive list. Examples are chosen based on a crude assessment of relevance to issues discussed in this paper (dosages administered are below or correspond to ADI levels, or are meant to mimic estimated intake levels in humans).
| Food Additives | Effect on Microbiota | Effect on Host Physiology | Organism/Treatment | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| CMC | Bacterial overgrowth | Intestinal inflammation | Mice (IL10−/−). 2% CMC, 3 weeks | [54] |
| CMC, P-80 | Microbiota encroachment, altered species composition, increased pro-inflammatory potential | Colitis, metabolic syndrome | Mice (IL10−/−, TLR5−/−). 1% CMC/P-80, 12 weeks Mice (WT). 0.1–1% CMC/P-80, 12 weeks |
[29] |
| CMC, P-80 | Increased pro-inflammatory potential | Human colon model. 1% CMC/P-80, duration: n/a | [33] | |
| P-80 | Microbiota encroachment, altered species composition, increased pro-inflammatory potential | Intestinal inflammation, obesity, liver dysfunction | Mice (WT). 1% P-80 per kg. bw, 4 weeks | [55] |
| GML | Gut microbiota dysbiosis | Metabolic syndrome, systemic low-grade inflammation | Mice (WT). 150 mg·kg−1 GML, 8 weeks | [56] |
| Titanium dioxide | Decrease in absorptive microvilli, decreased nutrient uptake | Human colon cells. 2.3 × 109 (high), 2.3 × 107 (medium), 2.3 × 105 (low) particles/mL | [63] | |
| Sucralose | Increased expression of bacterial pro-inflammatory mediators | Elevated pro-inflammatory gene expression in the liver | Mice (WT). 0.1 mg/mL sucralose, 6 months | [62] |
| NAS | Compositional and functional alterations of microbiota associated with obesity | Glucose intolerance | Mice (WT). 0.1 mg/mL−1 saccharin, 5 weeks | [28] |
| Saccharin | Increased pro-inflammatory potential | Liver inflammation | Mice (WT). 0.3 mg/mL saccharin, 6 months | [61] |
| Aspartame | Compositional alterations of microbiota | Glucose intolerance | Rats (WT). 5–7 mg/kg/d, 10 weeks | [59] |
| Acesulfame K | Compositional and functional alterations of microbiota associated with obesity | Weight gain (male) | Mice (CD-1). 37.5 mg/kg/d, 4 weeks | [60] |
| Silver nanoparticles | Gut microbial alterations associated with obesity and inflammatory diseases | Mice (WT). 46, 460 or 4600 ppb Ag NP, 28 days | [64] |
Acceptable daily intake (ADI), Polysorbate 80 (P-80), Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), Non-caloric artificial sweeteners (NAS), Glycerol Monolaureate (GML), Interleukin (IL), Toll like receptor (TLR), Wild type (WT), Not available (n/a), Body weight (bw), Cluster of differentiation 1 (CD1), Part per billion (ppb), Silver (Ag), Nanoparticles (NP).