Table 3.
Effect (parameter ± SE) of tongue position (tongue down) and feed type (NT) on N-HSPJ distance, and intra oral depth; and tongue position, feed type, and measurement location (location) on nipple diameters. Reference levels are tongue position is up, feed type is breastfeed, and location is 5 mm from the nipple tip. Random effects indicates the sub-groups of the data for which random intercepts were fitted, allowing for individual (infant) differences between measurements. The main effects models include all considered terms; interaction models consider only interactions, which include feed type.
| Random Effects | N-HSPJ | IOD | Nipple Diameters | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coeff (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff (95% CI) | p-Value | Coeff (95% CI) | p-Value | |
| Feed within Infant | Tongue Position within Feed within Infant | Tongue Position within Feed within Infant | ||||
| Main effects models | ||||||
| Reference a | 5.2 (4.1, 6.2) | - | 0.3 (−0.2, 0.7) | 0.30 | 11.2 (10.3, 12.2) | - |
| Tongue down | 1.6 (1.3, 1.8) | <0.001 | 3.9 (3.4, 4.5) | <0.001 | 1.0 (0.7, 1.4) | <0.001 |
| Novel Teat | −0.5 (−1.9, 0.8) | 0.42 | −0.1 (−0.7, 0.5) | 0.72 | −2.3 (−3.6, −1.0) | 0.002 |
| Location | <0.001 b | |||||
| 2 mm | - | - | - | - | −1.2 (−1.4, −1.0) | <0.001 |
| 10 mm | - | - | - | - | 0.6 (0.4, 0.8) | <0.001 |
| 15 mm | - | - | - | - | 0.8 (0.6, 1.0) | <0.001 |
| Interaction models | ||||||
| Reference a | 5.1 (4.0, 6.1) | - | 0.3 (−0.5, 0.8) | 0.28 | 11.1 (10.1, 12.1) | |
| Tongue down | 1.7 (1.3, 2.1) | <0.001 | 3.8 (3.1, 4.6) | <0.001 | 1.3 (0.9, 1.8) | <0.0001 |
| Novel Teat feed | −0.4 (−1.8, 1.1) | 0.60 | −0.2 (−1.0, 0.6) | 0.61 | −2.0 (−3.4, −0.6) | 0.007 |
| Location | <0.0001 b | |||||
| 2 | - | - | - | - | −1.4 (−1.7, −1.1) | <0.0001 |
| 10 | - | - | - | - | 0.6 (0.3, 0.9) | <0.0001 |
| 15 | - | - | - | - | 0.9 (0.6, 1.2) | <0.0001 |
| Tongue down Teat | −0.4 (−0.9, 0.2) | 0.21 | 0.2 (−0.9, 1.3) | 0.72 | −0.6 (−1.3, 0.1) | 0.069 |
| Location Teat | 0.010 b | |||||
| 2 mm | - | - | - | - | 0.4 (0.002, 0.8) | 0.039 |
| 10 mm | - | - | - | - | −0.1 (−0.5, 0.3) | 0.56 |
| 15 mm | - | - | - | - | 0.3 (−0.7, 0.2) | 0.26 |
a p-Values not included for reference levels except models for IOD, as the question ‘is this significantly different from zero’ is not meaningful for other analyses. b Omnibus p-values, indicating the overall chance that there is at least measurement points with significantly different measurements. p-Values for each of the measurement locations show significance of difference with respect to measurement made at 5 mm from nipple tip.