Table 2.

Normalized rates of evolution of Gpdh, Sod, and Xdh for increasingly remote lineages, inferred by using α estimates obtained from the full data sets, with estimates of divergence time derived from the Drosophila subgenera rate

Comparison	Myr	Amino acid replacements × 100 Myr				Clock estimates, Myr
		Gpdh	Sod	Xdh	Average	Gpdh	Sod	Xdh	Average
Within Drosophila groups	25–30	0.0–1.9	4.8–40.6	20.3–36.7	13.3–28.1	0–28	3–33	19–35	12–33
Between Drosophila groups	55  ± 10	1.5	25.7	30.4	22.4	41	46	53	49
Between Drosophila subgenera	60  ± 10	2.0	30.7	29.2	22.3	60	60	60	60
Between drosophilid genera	65  ± 10	4.4	34.9	31.7	24.9	142	74	65	85
Between dipteran families	120  ± 20	9.25	33.7	25.3	22.0	455	110	90	183
Between mammalian orders	70  ± 10	11.6	46.0	17.1	18.7	400	105	38	135
Between animal phyla	600  ± 100	13.2	19.2	19.2	17.5	3890	374	364	1243
Between fungi	300  ± 50	40.0	24.9	13.7	21.4	6699	276	130	1787
Between kingdoms	1100  ± 200	13.0	12.6	11.5	11.9	7045	451	398	2062

The species compared are listed in Fig. 1. The ± values are crude estimates of error for Myr. Rate values are expressed in units of 10⁻¹⁰ per site per year. Averages across loci are obtained by weighing the rate of each gene by the length of its sequence. The clock estimates of divergence time are extrapolated under the assumption that the Drosophila subgenera rate applies to other organisms.