Table 3.
Urinary biomarkers for assessment of kidney effects of cadmium.
| Biomarkers | Abnormal Values | Interpretations |
|---|---|---|
| NAG | >4 U/g creatinine | Tubular injury, mortality [94,95,96]. |
| Lysozyme | >4 mg/g creatinine | Tubular injury [97]. |
| Total protein | >100 mg/g creatinine | Glomerular dysfunction, CKD [98]. |
| Albumin | >30 mg/g creatinine | Glomerular dysfunction, CKD [98]. |
| β2-MG | ≥1000 μg/g creatinine | Irreversible tubular dysfunction [6,99,100,101]. |
| β2-MG | ≥300 μg/g creatinine | Mild tubular dysfunction, rapid GFR decline [102]. |
| β2-MG | ≥145 μg/g creatinine | Increased risk of hypertension, compared with urinary β2MG levels ≤84.5 μg/g creatinine [103]. |
| α1-MG | ≥400 μg/g creatinine | Mild tubular dysfunction [104,105] |
| α1-MG | ≥1500 μg/g creatinine | Irreversible tubular dysfunction [6,104]. |
| KIM-1 | ≥1.6 mg/g creatinine in men, ≥2.4 mg/g creatinine in women | Kidney injury, urinary KIM-1 levels correlate with blood Cd levels [106]. |
NAG = N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase; β2-MG = β2-microglobulin; α1-MG = α1-microglobulin; KIM-1 = Kidney injury molecule-1.