Figure 1.

Mechanisms of diabetic neuropathy. Aetiological factors of diabetes initiate a cascade of events leading to DNA damage, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial complex dysfunction, apoptosis, and loss of neurotrophic signaling. Ultimate activation of macrophages will cause cell damage in neurons, glial cells, and vascular endothelial cells, all of which can result in nerve dysfunction and neuropathy. AGE = advanced glycation end-products; LDL = low-density lipoprotein; FFA = free fatty acids; ER = endoplasmic reticulum; PI3K = phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase; LOX1 = oxidized LDL receptor 1; RAGE = receptor for advanced glycation end-products; TLR4 = Toll-like receptor 4.