Table 3.

Association of Daily Coffee Intake With Cause-Specific Mortality in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial (n = 90,317), 1998–2009

Cause of Death and Model	Coffee Consumption, cups/day										P for Trenda
	0 (n = 14,585)		<1 (n = 14,600)		1 (n = 13,886)		2–3 (n = 34,083)		≥4 (n = 13,163)
	HR	95% CI	HR	95% CI	HR	95% CI	HR	95% CI	HR	95% CI
Heart disease
No. of deaths	305		328		259		596		273
Model 1b	1.00	Referent	1.04	0.89, 1.22	0.81	0.69, 0.96	0.79	0.68, 0.90	0.97	0.82, 1.14	0.12
Model 2c	1.00	Referent	0.96	0.82, 1.12	0.73	0.62, 0.87	0.65	0.56, 0.75	0.67	0.56, 0.79	<0.0001
Model 3d	1.00	Referent	1.00	0.85, 1.18	0.81	0.68, 0.96	0.74	0.64, 0.86	0.75	0.63, 0.90	<0.0001
Cancer
No. of deaths	438		446		501		1,227		600
Model 1	1.00	Referent	1.00	0.88, 1.14	1.13	0.99, 1.28	1.15	1.03, 1.28	1.49	1.32, 1.69	<0.0001
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.92	0.80, 1.05	1.00	0.88, 1.14	0.90	0.81, 1.01	0.92	0.80, 1.04	0.21
Model 3e	1.00	Referent	0.93	0.81, 1.07	1.05	0.92, 1.20	0.95	0.84, 1.06	0.95	0.83, 1.09	0.47
Chronic lower respiratory diseases
No. of deaths	52		62		48		183		112
Model 1	1.00	Referent	1.17	0.81, 1.69	0.87	0.59, 1.29	1.44	1.06, 1.97	2.46	1.77, 3.43	<0.0001
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.86	0.60, 1.25	0.57	0.38, 0.84	0.67	0.49, 0.92	0.68	0.48, 0.95	0.11
Model 3	1.00	Referent	0.93	0.64, 1.35	0.73	0.48, 1.08	0.78	0.57, 1.08	0.68	0.48, 0.97	0.04
Stroke
No. of deaths	83		79		82		149		66
Model 1	1.00	Referent	0.94	0.69, 1.29	0.92	0.68, 1.25	0.75	0.58, 0.99	0.97	0.70, 1.35	0.44
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.92	0.67, 1.25	0.89	0.65, 1.21	0.68	0.52, 0.90	0.77	0.55, 1.08	0.03
Model 3	1.00	Referent	0.89	0.65, 1.22	0.88	0.64, 1.21	0.68	0.51, 0.91	0.77	0.54, 1.10	0.06
Accidents
No. of deaths	55		50		50		123		46
Model 1	1.00	Referent	0.89	0.60, 1.30	0.88	0.60, 1.30	0.90	0.66, 1.24	0.90	0.61, 1.33	0.78
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.86	0.59, 1.27	0.86	0.58, 1.26	0.85	0.61, 1.17	0.78	0.53, 1.18	0.35
Model 3	1.00	Referent	0.93	0.62, 1.38	0.94	0.63, 1.41	0.91	0.64, 1.29	0.80	0.52, 1.22	0.32
Alzheimer's disease
No. of deaths	21		19		14		27		12
Model 1	1.00	Referent	0.89	0.48, 1.65	0.60	0.30, 1.17	0.54	0.31, 0.96	0.73	0.36, 1.48	0.19
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.86	0.46, 1.60	0.57	0.29, 1.12	0.51	0.29, 0.92	0.64	0.30, 1.35	0.12
Model 3	1.00	Referent	1.01	0.53, 1.95	0.66	0.32, 1.36	0.59	0.31, 1.11	0.72	0.33, 1.58	0.20
Diabetes
No. of deaths	27		48		31		45		22
Model 1	1.00	Referent	1.72	1.07, 2.76	1.12	0.67, 1.87	0.67	0.41, 1.07	0.85	0.48, 1.50	0.003
Model 2	1.00	Referent	1.63	1.02, 2.63	1.06	0.63, 1.78	0.59	0.36, 0.97	0.66	0.37, 1.20	0.0002
Model 3f	1.00	Referent	1.90	1.17, 3.10	1.38	0.81, 2.36	0.79	0.48, 1.32	0.88	0.48, 1.60	0.01
Kidney diseaseg
No. of deaths	18		17		27		37		9
Model 1	1.00	Referent	0.91	0.47, 1.76	1.35	0.74, 2.44	0.84	0.48, 1.48	0.59	0.27, 1.33	0.11
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.87	0.45, 1.70	1.27	0.70, 2.33	0.75	0.42, 1.34	0.49	0.21, 1.11	0.03
Model 3	1.00	Referent	1.07	0.54, 2.12	1.72	0.92, 3.23	1.05	0.57, 1.93	0.62	0.26, 1.44	0.13
Influenza and pneumonia
No. of deaths	38		38		42		77		23
Model 1	1.00	Referent	0.97	0.62, 1.52	1.03	0.67, 1.60	0.82	0.56, 1.21	0.68	0.40, 1.14	0.06
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.85	0.54, 1.33	0.88	0.57, 1.38	0.63	0.42, 0.94	0.44	0.26, 0.75	0.001
Model 3	1.00	Referent	1.00	0.63, 1.59	1.11	0.70, 1.75	0.82	0.54, 1.25	0.55	0.32, 0.95	0.01
Intentional self-harm
No. of deaths	8		13		15		19		8
Model 1	1.00	Referent	1.54	0.64, 3.72	1.91	0.81, 4.50	0.91	0.40, 2.08	0.91	0.34, 2.44	0.17
Model 2	1.00	Referent	1.36	0.56, 3.31	1.64	0.69, 3.91	0.70	0.30, 1.63	0.58	0.21, 1.60	0.02
Model 3	1.00	Referent	1.16	0.47, 2.87	1.48	0.61, 3.59	0.60	0.25, 1.42	0.50	0.18, 1.42	0.02
Other causes
No. of deaths	331		352		303		624		240
Model 1	1.00	Referent	1.05	0.90, 1.23	0.87	0.74, 1.02	0.77	0.68, 0.88	0.82	0.69, 0.97	<0.0001
Model 2	1.00	Referent	0.99	0.85, 1.15	0.81	0.70, 0.95	0.67	0.59, 0.77	0.63	0.53, 0.75	<0.0001
Model 3	1.00	Referent	1.05	0.90, 1.23	0.91	0.77, 1.07	0.77	0.66, 0.89	0.71	0.59, 0.85	<0.0001

Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; HR, hazard ratio.

^a Statistical tests were 2-sided, and P < 0.05 was interpreted as statistically significant.

^b Results were adjusted for age and sex.

^c Results were additionally adjusted for detailed smoking history (number of cigarettes smoked per day (≤10, 11–20, 21–40, ≥41), time of smoking cessation (>1–<5, 5–<10, 10–<20, or ≥20 years prior to study entry; persons who quit within 1 year of baseline were considered current smokers), age at smoking initiation (<15, 15–<20, 20–<25, or ≥25 years), use of pipes or cigars (never, former, or current use)).

^d Results were additionally adjusted for race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, or other), educational level (less than a high school education, high school graduate or equivalent, some post–high school education, or college graduate), marital status (married or living as married or not married), employment status (working or homemaker, unemployed, retired, extended sick leave or disabled, or other), presence or absence of diabetes, body mass index (weight (kg)/height (m)²; <18.5, 18.5–<25, 25–<30, 30–<35, or ≥35), any supplemental vitamin use in the previous 12 months (yes or no), regular ibuprofen use in the previous 12 months (yes or no), regular aspirin use in the previous 12 months (yes or no), receipt of menopausal hormone therapy (women only) (never, former, or current use), alcohol consumption (0, <1, 1–<3, or ≥3 drinks/day), total daily energy intake, and quintile of intake of daily red and processed meat, white meat (i.e., poultry and fish), saturated fat, fruits, and vegetables.

^e For cancer, model 3 results were additionally adjusted for a history of cancer (other than nonmelanoma skin cancer) in a first-degree relative (yes or no).

^f For diabetes, model 3 results were not adjusted for the presence or absence of self-reported diabetes.

^g Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis.