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. 2018 Mar 29;8:4793. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-23044-8

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Owls had an academic disadvantage regardless of class start times. Average distribution of activity across non-class days for larks (blue), finches (purple), and owls (red) (A) revealed significant differences across the three chronotype categories. Owls experienced greater average SJL between non-class days and class days (B, red, linear SJL) than either larks (blue) or finches (purple). Owls also took a significantly higher proportion of morning classes than larks or finches (C) did. Analysis of class grades as a function of both chronotype category and class start time (D) revealed a significant disadvantage for owls across the day and a significant increase in class grade across the day for all chronotype categories. When time of day was normalized across all chronotype categories (E), then there is no longer an effect of time of day, and owls showed a significant disadvantage compared to larks and finches at all times of day. In plots D and E, the lowest bar represents the average of all morning class grades taken by individuals classified as owls. *p ≤ 0.05.