Table 2. Screening tests and interventions for sequelae of diabetes*.

Screening test and interval of administration	Recommended screening method(s)	Interventions
1. Retinopathy: –every 1–2 years – from age 10 onward or – starting 5 years after onset of diabetes	– binocuar, bimicroscopic funduscopy, with mydriasis, by an experienced ophthalmologist	– improvement of glycemic control – normalization of blood pressure – normalization of dyslipidemia –laser therapy – intravitreous injections
2. Nephropathy: –annually –from age 10 onward or –starting 5 years after onset of diabetes	–demonstration of microalbuminuria –concentration 20–200 mg/L – albumin excretion rate >20 and ≤ 200 µg/min – albumin-to-creatinine ratio	– improvement of glycemic control in the setting of hypertension + micralbuminuria: – ACE inhibitor – AT-I blocker for persistent microalbuminuria without hypertension: – consider an ACE inhibitor – smoking cessation
3. Neuropathy:  – if the long-term metabolic situation is poor, from age 10 onward or – annually starting 5 years after onset of diabetes	–history –sensitivity to touch (monofilament) – vibration sense (tuning fork test) –proprioceptive muscle reflexes	– improvement of glycemic control
4. Hypertension: –every three months –at least once per year from age 10 onward	– blood pressure measurement at rest – 24-hour blood pressure measurement should be performed if two spot measurements are above the 95 th percentile or if miroalbuminuria is present	– lifestyle intervention (exercise, salt restriction, weight loss, reduced alcohol intake, smoking cessation) if unsuccessful: – ACE inhibitor in case of contraindications or side effects: – AT-I blocker, in combination with other drugs as indicated
5. Hyperlipidemia: –within one year after diagnosis – then every 2 years –before puberty, every 5 years	measurement of: –total cholesterol –HDL – LDL –triglycerides	– dietary therapy if unsuccessful: – from age 7 onward, administration of a statin

ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; AT-I, angiotensin receptor blocker; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein,

* from (1) with the kind permission of Georg Thieme Verlag