Table 2.

Examples of biosensors based on screen-printed electrodes for the detection of bacteria and evaluation of antibiotic resistance.

Bacteria/Sample	Sensor Configuration 1	Analytical Performance	Reference
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
S. typhimurium; Cell cultures	SPCE modified with Au NP; aptamer	DL: 600 cfu mL−1; 13.8% increase in RCT for 1 × 105 cfu mL−1 heat-killed bacteria, 100% RCT increase in with live bacteria	[78]
Staphylococcus arlettae; Spiked water and apple juice	Graphene electrode; bacteriophage	DL: 2 cfu Range: 2.0–2.0 × 106 cfu; Response time: 2 min Stability: 3 months	[99]
E. coli; Cell cultures	SPCE; T4 phage	DL: 104 cfu mL−1, onset of lysis observed after 20 min	[110]
E. coli K12; milk	phage-functionalized screen-printed carbon microarrays; T4 phage-magnetic beads;	DL: 103 cfu mL−1	[111]
blaNDM gene	SPCE; peptide nucleic acid,	DL: 200 nM	[57]
blaNDM gene	SPAuE; peptide nucleic acid	DL: 10 nM (synthetic targets), 100 pM (PCR products)	[112]
E. coli and methicillin-resistant S. aureus; cell culture	Interdigitated electrodes; antibody	Analysis time: <90 min; AST, 6 antibiotics tested; results compared with bacteria viability and conventional antibiogram assay	[113]
Amperometry
E. coli K-12, MG1655; cell culture	SPCE; activity of β-d-galactosidase in filtered cell lysate	DL: 1 cfu/100 mL for an incubation time of 8 h.	[114]
Differential Pulse Voltammetry
E. coli; Drinking water, apple juice, and skim milk	Thin film Pt electrode; engineered T7 phage; release of β-galactosidase	105 cfu mL−1 for 3 h interaction; 102 cfu mL−1 after 7 h	[115]
Square Wave Voltammetry
E. coli and Enterococcus spp.; pure cultures, water alfalfa sprouts, inoculated with E. coli and E. faecium	Screen-printed stencil electrodes on transparent film; release of β-galactosidase and β-glucuronidase (E. coli) and β-glucuronidase (Enterococcus)	DL: 10 cfu mL−1 E. coli after 4 h pre-culturing and 1 cfu mL−1 Enterococcus after 8 h culturing; DL: 2.3 × 102 cfu g−1 (E. coli) and 3.1 × 101 cfu g−1 E. faecium after 4 h and 12 h of pre-enrichment	[116]
E. coli; cell cultures	SPCE modified with didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DDAB);	Test time: 2–5 h; resistance to cefepime, ampicillin, amikacin, and erythromycin	[117]
Chronocoulometry
E. coli JM105; cell culture	Screen-printed carbon electrode arrays modified with poly-l-lysine or chitosan;	IC50 chloramphenicol: 2.0 ± 0.2 mM; 17 antibiotics tested; 20 min test time; measurement of bacterial respiratory activity	[118]

¹ SPCE: screen-printed carbon electrodes; DL: detection limit; PNP: p-nitrophenol; SPAuE: screen-printed gold electrode.