Table 4.

Cellular and animal evidence on phytochemicals used for prevention and treatment of kidney stones.

Photochemical	In Vitro/In Vivo	Model	Result	Reference
Catechin	In vitro	Calcium oxalate monohydrate(COM)-induced NRK-52E cells	↑ SOD activity ↓ Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), Caspase-3 activity, and renal calcium crystallization	[121]
	In vivo	Ethylene glycol (EG) induced nephrolithiasis in rat	↑ OPN, ↓ MDA, 8-OHdG ↓ Renal calcium crystallization	[121]
	In vivo	EG-induced nephrolithiasis in rat	↓ Calcium oxalate monohydrate and Papillary calculus formation ↓ Renal papillary calcification	[122]
Epigallocatechin-3-gallate	In vitro	COM-induced Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells	↓ α-enolase protein expression ↓ crystal-binding capability	[123]
	In vitro	Oxalate-induced NRK-52E cells	↓ Free-radical production	[41]
	In vivo	Oxalate-induced renal stone in rats	↓ Excretion of urinary oxalate ↓ Activities of urinary gammaglutamyl transpeptidase and N-acetylglucosaminidase	[41]
Diosmin	In vivo	EG-induced nephrolithiasis in rat	↓ Capillary hyper-permeability ↓ Degeneration of glomeruli and tubules, Restoring the diameter of the capillaries and vessels in the cortex	[129]
Rutin	In vivo	EG-induced nephrolithiasis in rat	Prevention of stone formation Inhibition of calcium oxalate urolithiasis	[133]
Quercetin	In vivo	EG induced calcium oxalate (CaOx) formation	Hypo-Uricemic, and anti-inflammatory activities Inhibitory effect on the deposition of CaOx crystal	[134]
	In vitro	Sodium oxalate	↓ Cell viability ↓ Lipid peroxidation	[135]
	In vivo	Hyperoxaluria-induced rats	↓ Urinary crystal deposit formation	[135]
	In vivo	EG-induced nephrolithiasis in rat	↓ Oxidative damage ↑ Serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1)	[119]

↑ demonstrates increasing trend; ↓ demonstrates deccreasing trend.