Table 1.

Hypothesized paths and their signs considered in SEM models. Column headings indicate path origins; row headings are destinations; column abbreviations reflect row labels. Path directions were based on ecological relationships in kelp forests as summarized by Schiel & Foster [15]. Grey + and − symbols indicate possible path directions that were not explicitly tested in our model.

	path origin
	kelp	sea urchins	understorey macroalgae	sessile invertebrates	mobile grazers	mobile predators
kelp		−a	−		−
sea urchins	+		+	+		−
understorey macroalgae	−a	−a		−	−
sessile invertebrates	+	−a	−a		−	−
mobile grazers	+		+	+		−
mobile predators	+a	+	+	+a	+a

^aPaths that were significant in the model.