Table 1.

Summary of animal models for predicting vaccine effectiveness

Pathogen	Key characteristics of animal challenge model		Immunological end points/assays		Bridging animal data to human	Animal studies predictive of vaccine protection against disease in humans
	Pathogen challenge stock (human; animal prototype)	Disease pattern similar to humans	Correlate of protection identified	Species-independent assay available
HPV	Animal pathogen prototypes (bovine, dog)	Partially	Yes	No	Yes	Yes
Anthraxa	Human pathogen/validated	Yes	Yes	Yes/validated	Yes	Yes
Ebola	Human pathogen	Yes	Partially	Not finalized; not validated	No	Partially
HIV	Animal pathogen prototypes (SIV, SHIV)	Partially	No	No	No	No

HPV, Human papillomavirus; SIV, simian immunodeficiency virus; SHIV, HIV strain.

^aAnthrax vaccine was approved under the FDA “Animal Rule.”