Table 1.

List of Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Snakebites in India

Biological source	Family	Local names	Part used	Method of administration	References
Ajuga bracteosa Wall Ex Benth	Lamiaceae	Neelkanthi, Nilkanthi, Kanasar	Rt	Root extract is used as an antidote	29
Ailanthus excels Roxb	Simaroubaceae	Peeyamaram	Lv	Decoction of the leaves with the leaves of Aristolochia indica prepared and mixed with goats’ milk to drink for treatment of snakebites	30, 31
Alangium lamarbi Thwaites	Alangiaceae	–	Br	Bark paste is taken orally	32
Alangium salvifolium (Linnf) Wang	Alangiaceae	Ankol, Ankula, Alangi, Aankla	Wp, R, Lv, St, Br	Approximately 15 g of bark ground + 10–12 black peppers mixed with 72 g animal fat given every 2 h to cure snakebite Root bark decoction is given internally to treat snakebite	33, 34, 35, 36
Albizia lebbeck (Linn) Benth	Fabaceae	Siris, Kala, Siris, Segta/Siris, Hombage, bhandi	Lv, Br, Fl, Wp, R	Paste of bark is used	31, 37, 38, 39, 40
Allium cepa Linn	Liliaceae	Piyaz, Venkayam	Bb	The paste made from fresh skin of bulb is used for external application (5 d)	38, 41
Allium sativum Linn	Liliaceae	Lasoon	Bb	Bulb is made into paste and given orally	41, 42
Alsophila glabra Sensu Bedd	Cyatheaceae	–	Rz	Unknown	43
Alstonia scholaris (Linn) RBr	Apocynaceae	Saptparni, Chatni, Satina, Barap lei, Lawthong	Lv, Br	Bark decoction given orally	44, 45, 46, 47
Alstonia venenata RBr	Apocynaceae	Analivegham, Elaipalai, Analivegham	St, Br, Rt	Tablets made from paste of stem bark are taken with cow's urine Decoction also taken orally	48, 49
Alternanthera sessilis (Linn) R Brown ex DC	Amaranthaceae	KandiliJari	St, Lv	External application of stem and leaf paste is used	50, 51, 52
Amaranthus blitum Linn	Amaranthaceae	Chaulai	Rt	Root powder is used	39
Amaranthus spinosus Linn	Amaranthaceae	Kateli, Mullikeerai, Kateli, Chaurai, Kanta-bhaji, Kateli-chaulai	R, Lv Wp	Paste of leaves is applied locally	39, 53, 54, 55, 56
Amaranthus viridis Linn	Amaranthaceae	Khutora, Chaulai	Lv, St	Leaf/stem paste is applied externally	53
Ammannia baccifera Linn	Lythraceae	Neerumulli	Wp	Whole plant powder mixed with hot cow's milk to drink	57
Amomum aromaticum Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Borelachi, Chakma, Bodaelachi	Sd	Seed paste is used	58
Amomum subulatum Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Bara elachi	Pd	Boil 2–3 pods and drink the extract twice daily for a week	58
Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume: ex DC	Araceae	Bhabdi	Tb	The tubers are crushed and applied externally	59
Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott) Engler	Araceae	–	Tb	Unknown	60
Andrographis alata Nees	Acanthaceae	Periyanangai	Lv	A handful of fresh leaves or juice is taken orally	61
Andrographis echioides Nees	Acanthaceae	Nadnaur, Gusum puru, Gopuranthangi	Wp	Paste of whole plant is given orally with water It is also applied externally	62
Andrographis lineate Wallich ex	Acanthaceae	Siriyanangai, Periyanangai, Malaiveempu	Wp, Lv	Paste of leaves is applied externally About 3 grams of whole plant paste is directly administered orally	63, 64, 65
Andrographis paniculata (Burm f) Wall Ex Nees	Acantheceae	Kalmegh, Bhumi neem, Neelaveppu, Nilavaembu, Chirianangai, Sirianangai, Periyanangai	Lv, Lv, Wp	A decoction of the leaves with the leaves of Andrographis alata is given Decoction or extract is applied externally	30, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74
Anisomeles indica (Linn) Kuntze	Lamiaceae	Paeimiratti	Lv	Paste of leaf is taken	75
Anisomeles malabarica (Linn) RBr	Lamiaceae	Siriyapaeyamarati, Peymarutti	Lv	The leaf or juice mixed with water to drink	75
Annona squamosa Linn	Annonaceae	Seethaphala	St, Br, Lv	Unknown	57, 76
Anogeissus acuminata Wall	Combretaceae	Dhavra	Pl	Poultice is applied	77
Anthocephalus cadamba Miq	Rubiaceae	Kadam	Wp	Unknown	39
Antidesma bunius (Linn) Spreng	Phyllanthaceae	Tuaitit	Lv	Unknown	78
Arachne cordifolia (Decne) Hurusawa	Euphorbiaceae	–	Lv, St	Unknown	79
Ardisia humilis Vahl	Myrsinaceae	Kumbreth	Br	Crushed paste is applied	80
Argemone Mexicana Linn	Papaveraceae	Sialkatahi, Datturi, Pilikateli, Bharbhand, Brahmathandu	Lv, Sd, Rt	Leaf/seed decoction given orally (7 d) Root paste is also used	53, 81, 82
Ariesaema barnesii C Fischer	Araceae	Kaattuchenai	Tb	Dried tuber of this plant and whole plant paste of Andrographis paniculata (1:1) applied over wounds twice a day	69
Arisaema flavum (Forsskal) Schott	Araceae	Sapp googli	Tb	The tubers are crushed and a paste is made that is applied	83
Arisaema jacquemontii Blume	Araceae	Khaprya	Fr, Rz	Unknown	79, 80
Arisaema leschenaultii Bl ume	Araceae	Havina jola	Rt, Lv, Fr	Fruit/leaf and root paste is applied on the spot of snakebite thrice a day for about 8 d.	81
Arisaema tortuosum (Wall) Schott	Araceae	Haap roodakaro, Halida, Kotukand, Chambus, Chakrata	Tb, Bb	Paste of the tuber in applied. Infusion of fresh bulb is taken orally thrice daily	60, 84, 85
Aristolochia bracteolate Lamk	Aristolochiaceae	Kalipad, Aduthinnapalai	Lv, Rt	Leaf paste applied externally, as well as infusion taken orally	60, 75, 85, 86
Aristolochia indica Linn	Aristolochiaceae	Sapasan, Garalika, Garudi, Nagbel, Arkamul, Birthwort, Ishwarmul, Bhedi-Janete, Karalakam, Kaliparh, Kaligulesar, Eashwari, Eshwarballi, Perumarindu, Karuda kodi, Garudakodi, Thalaisuruli	Rt, Wp	Fresh roots are ground along with Rouwalfia serpentina mixed in water taken twice daily (3 d) Root powder is snuffed Root juice is given orally and root paste applied locally	3, 34, 54, 61, 62, 71, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97
Aristolochia tagala Cham	Aristolochiaceae	Samta, Valiya, Eswaramulli, Perumarunt, Hukodi	Rt	Crushed and mixed with water and drunk, as well as fresh roots ground and applied externally on affected area	80, 98
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam	Moraceae	Kanthal	Pn	Drink 1 cup juice thrice daily	94
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam	Moraceae	–	Br	Bark paste made with coconut oil and applied	99
Artocarpus integrifolia	Artocarpaceae	Kothal, Theibong	Fr	Unknown	78
Asparagus racemosus Willd	Liliaceae	Halavu, Makkala, Beru, Satvari	Rt	Paste of the fasciculate root is applied externally	3, 100
Asystasia gangetica Linn	Acanthaceae	Silandhinaayagam	Lv	Leaf paste is given	90
Azadirachta indica A Juss	Meliaceae	Vembu, Veempu, Neem	Fl, Br, Lv, Fr	Decoction/paste is prepared and given orally (7 d)	38, 54, 59, 101
Bacopa monnieri (Linn) Pennell	Scrophulariaceae	Brahmisak, Nirbirami, Neeripirami, Brahmi	Br, Lv, Wp	Juice mixed with castor oil is applied externally to treat Leaf powder decoction mixed with hot cow's milk taken orally	3, 86
Barleria cristata Linn	Acanthaceae	Kali, Brenkad	Lv, R, Sd	Leaf juice is applied	50
Barleria prionitis Linn	Acanthaceae	Kattukanagambaram	Rt	Decoction taken orally	49
Boerhaavia diffusa Linn	Nyctaginaceae	Punarnawa, Dabbal bhaji, Chotwa bhaji, Patharchatta, Biskhapara, Ittsitt	Lv, Wp	Leaf juice is also applied locally and taken orally for 7 d	39, 50
Boerhavia repens Linn	Nyctaginaceae	Ponownowa	Rt	Unknown
Bombax ceiba Linn	Bombaceae	Ilavu, Kate savar, Semal, Simul, Semar, Phunchawng, Simbal, Pikriisii	Fls, RBr, Sd	Paste of flowers/fruits/leaves is applied on the bitten spot	39, 80
Bryophyllum pinnatum Kuntz	Crassulaceae	Dupartenga	Lv	Unknown	53
Buchanania lanzan Spr	Anacardiaceae	Char, Chironji, Achar, Chironji, Chirongi, Pial	Br	Unknown	37
Butea monosperma (Lamk) Taub	Fabaceae	Palash, Dhak, Parsa, Plash	Br, Lv, Fl, Gu, Sd, St, Br, Re, Lx	Bark paste applied on swelling Paste of one seed in 10 mL lemon juice is given orally	38
Caesalpinia bonduc (Linn) Roxb	Caesalpiniaceae	Poonainagam, Karanj	Sd	Seeds paste applied externally (2 weeks)	39, 95
Calotropis gigantea (L) R Br	Asclepiadaceae	Dev rui, Aak, Ekke, Akanda, Erukku, Aakdo, Safedaakdo, Gadsa, Akanda, Erukku	R, Lx	Root bark is ground into paste and made into pills and given orally Leaf latex is applied externally	43, 76, 77, 90
Calotropis procera (Ait) R Br	Asclepiadaceae	Rui, Rai, Aakori: Aakra, Biliekke, Ekka (Safed Ak), Rakta arka, Vellerukku, Akra, Aak, Madar, Safed, Madar, Gadsa, Akwan	Lx, Rt, Young, Bd	Leaf latex is applied on bitten area Root is crushed and given to drink and applied externally	75, 99
Cannabis sativa Linn	Cannabaceae	Bhang	Lv	Leaf paste is used	38
Capparis decidua (Forssk) Edgew	Capparaceae	Kareel, Karerua	Fr, Sd	Fruits are eaten	39, 92
Capsicum annum Linn	Solanaceae	Marchiya	Rt	Unknown	41
Cardiospermum luridium Linn	Sapindaceae	Moddacoatan	Wp	The whole plant powder mixed with goat's milk to drink	75
Carica papaya Linn	Caricaceae	Papita, Amrurbhanda, Papita	Fr, Sd, Lx	Unripened fruit of Carica papaya is taken and the skin is removed by slicing, salt is then rubbed over it, and the fruit is then placed over the bite with sliced portions in contact with the bite and bandaged Few drops of latex are applied to snakebite wound for quick healing	34
Cassia alata Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Senna, Khor-pat daopata, Seemaiyagathi	Lv	Paste of leaves is applied externally, as well as given orally	78
Cassia fistula Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Amaltash, Dhanba, Amaltas, Sonarkhi, Kakke	Fr, Sd, Lv, St, R, Br	The paste & decoction of root bark with black pepper is given orally Paste of stem bark applied on bitten place Fruit pulp is used	37, 38, 39, 62
Cassia occidentalis Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Kasaundi, Kasondi, Peeperambi, Thagarai	Rt, Lv	Oral administration of root paste	38, 39, 67
Cassia sophera Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Sularai	Rt	Unknown	86
Cassia tora Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Takala, Sickle, senna, Chakawad, Chakunda, Tagarai, Bon medelwa	Rt, Lv	Root paste & leaf decoction is applied externally (30 d)	39, 53
Catharanthus roseus G Don	Apocynaceae	Nithya pushpa	Rt	Root paste mixed with pepper and lime is applied externally	81
Cayratia trifolia (Linn) Domin	Vitaceae	Khhata nimbi	Tb	Paste of tuber applied on the affected area	84
Centratherum anthelminticum (L) Kuntze	Asteraceae	Kattujeerakam	Sd	Unknown	66
Cheilocostus speciosus (JKeonig) CDSpecht	Costaceae	Keu, Chengalva kostu	Rz	Unknown	95
Chlorophytum laxum R Br	Liliaceae	Neerootikizangu	Tb	Tuber paste applied on affected area	89
Cissampelos pareira Linn	Menispermaceae	Patha, Patindu, Batindu, Patha, Urikkakodi, Chokipar, Tijumala, Ekladi Poa	Tb, Rt	Root paste with long pepper is prescribed once daily for 5 d	92, 93, 96
Citrullus colocynthis (Linn) Schrad	Cucurbitaceae	Kadva inravarna, Tumba, Gadumba, Tumbo, Indrayan	Sd, Rt, Fr	Seed oil used externally, as well as root crushed and given to drink	33, 38
Clematis triloba Linn	Ranunculaceae	Badarsiti, Jangali, Bhoda, Bendar, Siti	Rt	Root paste is applied	77
Cleome gynandra Linn	Cleomaceae	Hul-hul	Lv, Wp	Unknown	39
Cleome viscose Linn	Capparidaceae	Nayivelai	Lv	Leaf paste applied externally	30
Clerodendron inerme Gaertn	Verbenaceae	Vishaparihari	Rt	Root paste mixed with lime is applied twice daily for a week	81
Clitoria ternatea Linn	Fabaceae	Ruhu tuhu, Aparajita, Syahiful, Aparajita, Gokarni, Aparajita, Bili, Shankhapushpa	R	The root extract is taken with the root of Aristolochia indica and Rauwolfia serpentine	39, 87
Cocculus villosus DC	Menispermaceae	Nagdun, Vachan karalla	Rt	The root bark extract is given internally and applied	3, 38
Commelina bengalensis Linn	Commelinaceae	Kana simolu	R	Roots are useful	53
Corallocarpus epigaeus (Rottl & Willd) Hook f	Cucurbitaceae	Aathalai, Marsikand, Kollan, Kova killangu	Rt, Tb	Root decoction given internally 3–7 times	64, 68, 97
Costus speciosus (Koen) Sm	Costaceae	Keon, Kanda, Kebuk, Mahalakri, Jamlakhuti, Pewa, Jamlakhuti, Khongbam, Takhelei, Sumbul, Jomalkhuti, Myonpobap	Rt, Rz	Rhizome and root paste is used internally & externally	58, 60, 80, 87
Crateva magna (Lour) DC	Capparaceae	Jong-sia	Br	Chewed and applied on bitten area	80
Curculigo orchioide Gaertn	Amaryllidaceae	Nilapanai, Nela tengu, Kali musli	Rt, Tb	Root paste use topicaly	39, 80, 81
Curcuma amada Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Amba haldi	Rz	The powder of the rhizome is applied locally	84
Curcuma aromatica Salisb	Zingiberaceae	Bon haladhi, Lam-yaingang	Rz	Paste of rhizome taken with water	58
Curcuma caesia Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Kalahalud, Kalahaldi krushna kedara, Neelkanth	Rz	The dried rhizome powder is mixed with powdered seeds of Andrographis paniculata and applied	34, 58
Cyathula tomentosa Roth	Amaranthaceae	–	Lv	Unknown	79
Cyphostemma auriculatum (Roxb) Singh & Shetty	Vitaceae	Kali-vel	Br	Bark is taken in some water and taken once a day (7–8 d)	96
Daemia extensa RBr	Asclepiadaceae	Vaelipparuththi	Rt	Powder of root is given	90
Datura metel Linn	Solanaceae	Kala Dhatura, Dhutura	Sd, Rt, Lv	Extract of roots are taken with garlic	39, 70, 80, 81
Delphinium denudatum Wall ex Hook f & Thomson	Ranunculaceae	Nirbishi	Rt	Unkown	41
Desmodium gangeticum (Linn) DC	Fabaceae	Kareti, Salparni	R	Half-cup root decoction is taken orally	39, 60
Dichrostachys cinerea Linn Wight & Arn	Araceae	Vedathalai, Kheri	Lv, Rt	Root powder is used Leaves are crushed into paste and applied locally	54
Dicliptera paniculata (Forssk) IDarbysh	Acanthaceae	Chebeera	Wp	Unknown	95
Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn	Dioscoreaceae	Lalvala vahrikand	Tb	Extract is also given	60
Dregea volubilis (Lf) BenthEx Hookf	Apocynaceae	Dudipala, Bandi gurija	Lv	Unknown	95, 96
Drymaria cordata (L) Willd Ex Roem & Schult	Caryophyllaceae	Mecanachil, Theiphelwang, Kynbat thalap	Wp	Whole plant is used (crushed paste applied)	80
Dryopteris cochleata CChr	Aspidiaceae	Chhoti Bhulan	Wp, Lv, R	The whole plant crushed in a bowl and the extract is given orally twice a day The leaves and roots are applied on the bite wound	43
Eclipta alba (Linn) Hassk	Asteraceae	Manchal karisalankanni, Bhringraj, Maka	Wp	Whole plant juice is given orally (30 d)	38
Elaeodendron glaucum Pers	Celastraceae	Ratangaur, Bhairao, Niuri Mamri, Jamrasi Mukarthi (Bhutphal)	Br, Rt	Roots and bark of plant made into paste taken orally with cow's milk	62
Elettaria cardamomum Maton	Zingiberaceae	Elassi	Sd, Pd	Decoction	58
Eleusine indica (L) Gaertn	Poaceae	Malkantari-Mundari	Rt	20 g root is crushed along with 10 g Zingiber officinale and nine black pepper pieces; paste is divided into two equal parts One part with a few drops of honey is administered orally and the other part is applied on the snake bitten area	92
Enicostemma axillare (Lam) A Raynal	Gentianaceae	Vellarugu	Rt	5–10 drops of root extract is poured in the spot	91
Ervatamia coronaria Stapf	Apocynaceae	–	Rt, Br	Root and bark infusion mixed with milk and butter, filtered, and used	99
Ervatamia heyneana Cooke	Apocynaceae	Kadunandibattalu	Rt	Root paste mixed with lemon juice & applied	81
Euphorbia neriifolia Linn	Euphorbiaceae	Mausa sij, Dudhbol, Thor, Thundar, Manasa	Lx, Rt	Latex is applied locally Root is used with black pepper	54, 80
Ficus benghalensis Linn	Moraceae	Badd, Bar, Bargad	Lx, Ap, Rt, Fr	Unknown	38
Ficus glomerata Roxb	Moraceae	Medi	St, Br	The stem bark paste is applied	31
Ficus hirta Vahl	Moraceae	Tamangaddu	Rt	Root crushed & rubbed	47
Ficus racemosa Linn	Moraceae	Gular	Br	The stem bark is pounded with whey and applied locally	54
Ficus religiosa Linn	Moraceae	Peepal	Lv, Br, Fr	25 g stem bark and 8–10 cloves are pounded with animal fat (pure ghee) and given 4–6 times a day	35, 37, 59
Ficus tinctoria Forstf	Moraceae	Tella barnika	Lv	Unknown	31
Fimbristylis spathacea Roth	Cyperaceae	Hathia	Rt	The fresh root is taken internally & externally	87
Gloriosa superb Linn	Liliaceae	Vadhavadiyo, Vach, Nag, Nagardi, Gowri, Huvu, Kalihari, Kalihari, Karianaga, Agnishikha, Kariyari, Kalappa, Kilangu	Tb, Rt, Rz, Sd	Root paste or tuber paste is applied externally (2–5 d)	38, 39, 81, 82
Habenaria commelinifolia Wall	Orchidaceae	Ankra	Tb	The tuber paste is applied	59
Hedychium spicatum SM	Zingiberaceae	Aithur, Takhellei-hanggam-mapan	Rz, Rt	Root decoction is used	58
Helicteres isora Linn	Sterculiaceae	Hateri, Murud sheng, Maror Phali	Br, Rt	Bark power is given in snakebite	39, 57
Heliotropium indicum Linn	Boraginaceae	Nakkipoo	Lv	The leaf juice mixed with hot water is used	75
Heliotropium marifolium Koen ex Retz	Boraginaceae	Choti-santri	Wp	Unknown	82
Heliotropium supinum Linn	Boraginaceae	Goma	Ap	Pounded aerial portions are applied externally and its juice is given orally in a dose of 5 mL at frequent intervals	35
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn) R Br	Asclepiadaceae	Suganti Jad, Anantmul, Choti dudhia, Anantamul, Analsing, Nannari, Anantamul	Rt, Lv	Aqueous extract of root is prepared in water and given orally & root paste is applied two or three times a day	92, 93
Heteropogon contortus (Linn) P Beauv	Poaceae	Lapia, Lapida, Soorwala	Rt	Root paste is taken orally Poultice of root paste is also applied on the bitten portion for early cure	60
Holarrhena pubescens (Buch-Ham)Wall ex GDon	Apocynaceae	Pandhara Kula, Bolmatra	Sd, Rt, St, Br	Paste is applied on the bitten area two times a day	80
Hordeum vulgare Linn	Poaceae	Jau, Jav	Gr	Unknown	54
Hyptis suaveolens (Linn) Poit	Lamiaceae	Ban Tulsi	R	Unkown	39
Impatiens glandulifera Royle	Balsaminaceae	Hillu	Fls	Unknown	83
Ipomoea obscura (L) Ker Gawler	Convolvulaceae	Siruthaalikkodi	Lv	Leaf juice is administered	91
Jatropha gossipifolia Linn	Euphorbiaceae	Kattamanakku	Lv, St, Br, Sd, Lx	Unkown	55
Kyllinga monocephala Rottb	Cyperaceae	Safad, Nirbashi	Un	Unknown	38
Lantana camara Linn	Verbenaceae	Ragadd, Gajukampa, Arippu	R, Fl, St, Lv, Wp	Decoction of roots, flower, and stem are used	75
Leucas aspera Spreng	Lamiaceae	Durum bon, Gumma, Bhodaki, Tumbe, Thumbai, Gadde tumbe, Thumbi, Thumbai, Kennathumbai	Wp, Lv, Rt	Leaf paste or crushed leaf is taken both externally & internally to treat The root juice is mixed with goat's milk three times a day (4 d)	73, 75, 81, 90, 99, 100
Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng	Lamiaceae	Goma, Gumbi, Gumma	Wp	Decoction of whole plant (twice a day for 6 d)	38, 39
Lindenbergia muraria (Roxb) Brühl	Scrophulariaceae	Chatti	Wp	Paste of leaf is applied externally	82
Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne	Campanulaceae	Heddumbe, Kadu hogesoppu	Lv, Lx	Latex is applied externally	81, 100
Luffa acutangula (Linn) Roxb	Cucurbitaceae	Torai, Peerkan, Jangli Torai	Fr, Tn, Sd	Tendrils & seed paste is used	39, 90
Malva sylvestris Linn	Malvaceae	Bendi gida	Lv	Extract of leaf mixed with lime juice given	99
Martynia annua Linn	Martyniaceae	Bagnakha	Rt	Decoction	67
Mimosa pudica Linn	Mimosaceae	Lajwanti, Thotta, Sinungi, Uskadpoda, Chhuimui/Lajwanti, Thottal surungi, Thottalvadi, Thottasiniki	Rt, Lv, Wp	Whole plants are made into extract in drinking water and shaken well and filtered Extract of whole plant is given twice a day for one day only Leaves are ground and made into paste and applied over affected area	31, 39, 47, 90
Mirabilis jalapa Linn	Nyctaginaceae	Jahai juhi	Tb	The solution of tuber paste is given orally	62
Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb) Korth	Rubiaceae	Neer-kadamba, Kadamba	Br, Fr	Unknown	57
Momordica charantia Linn	Cucurbitaceae	Karela, Pakakai	Wp, Sh, Rt	Juice of tender shoot or root is applied	42
Momordica dioica Roxb Ex Willd	Cucurbitaceae	Kakoda, Kankoda, Madi hagala kayi	Rt	Root tuber pounded with lime is applied externally on bitten spot daily thrice for 7 d	81, 82
Moringa oleifera Lam	Moringaceae	Sajina, Nugge, Sahigan, Mungna, Sainjna, Sahjan, Sainjnad, Murungaih	Rt, Sd, Wp, St, Br, Lv	Fresh extract of bark is taken orally Bark root tincture apllied externally (3 d)	3, 54
Mucuna pruriens (Linn) DC	Fabaceae	Kevach, Konch	Sd, Fr, Rt	Aqueous extract of root is given orally twice a day	39
Musa paradisiaca Linn	Musaceae	Vazhai, Valaimaram, Valai	Br, St, skin, Br	A plant extract is given orally	30, 68
Nerium indicum Mill Gard	Apocynaceae	Kaner, Kaner/Kanail, Lal kanher	Lv, Br Rt	The root is crushed with roots of Capparis sepiaria and Datura innoxia and paste applied externally thrice for 5 d	39, 54
Nymphoides hydrophylla O Kuntze	Menyanthaceae	–	Lv	Leaf paste is used	52
Ochna obtusata DC	Ochnaceae	–	Rt	Powder of root drunk with hot water frequently	80
Ocimum adscendens Wild	Lamiaceae	Heddumbe	Rt	Unknown	99
Ocimum basilicum Linn	Lamiaceae	Naitulasi, Kali Tulsi	Wp	Whole plant decoction orally given (week)	39
Ocimum sanctum Linn	Lamiaceae	Barpai, Tulasi	Lv, Rt, Wp	A paste of Ocimum leaf with the rhizome of Curcuma longa L (Zingiberaceae) is applied externally Leaf juice oral (8 d)	3, 38, 51
Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn	Rubiaceae	Havina gedde, Pambupoo, Keeripundu	Rt	Root juice is given (twice a day for 6 d	61, 98
Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl) Haw	Cactaceae	Sappathikali	St, Br, Fr, Wp	The fruit paste is applied	75
Ottelia alismoides (L) Pers	Verbenaceae	–	Lv	Unknown	57
Oxalis debilis HBK var corymbosa (DC) Lour O martiana Zucc	Oxalidaceae	Khatti Booti	Wp	Unknown	39
Pandanus nepalensis St John	Pandanaceae	–	Lv	Unknown	42
Parnassia nubicola Wall ex Royle	Parnassiaceae	–	Tbs, Rt	Unknown	79
Pavetta indica Linn	Rubiaceae	Therani	Lv	A leaf paste is used externally	68
Pergularia daemia (Forrsk)Chiov	Apocynaceae	Veliparuthi	Rt, Lv	The decoction of the leaves is used	30, 75, 95
Peucedanum anamallayense Cl	Apiaceae	Padachurukki	Wp	Whole plant paste along with cow's urine is taken	48
Phyllanthus acidus (Linn) Skeels	Euphorbiaceae	Kawlsunhlu	Rt	Decoction of roots is given	78
Piper nigrum Linn	Piperaceae	Bolkaalu, Menasina kaalu, Maricha, Kali-mirch, Milagu	Fl, Sd, Fr	Seed powder mixed with butter is given orally against snakebite Flower paste with ghee given orally (4 d)	3, 54
Pistia stratiotes Linn	Araceae	Jalkumbhi	Sd	Decoction of seeds is given	67
Pittosporum tetraspermum Wight & Arn	Pittosporaceae	Analivegam	St, Br	Paste of stem bark is taken with cow's urine	48, 66
Plantago erosa Wall	Plantaginaceae	Chhakur-blang	Lv	Poultice of the leaves is given	80
Platanthera susannae Lindl	Orchidaceae	Nela site huvu	Rt	In combination with lime and salt, the paste of root tubers is applied on the affected area	81
Pouzolzia indica Gaud	Urticaceae	Dudhmor	Wp	Unknown	53
Prosopis cineraria Druce	Fabaceae	Khejdi, Vanni maram	Br	Paste of bark tied on the affected area	71
Quercus leucotrichophora A Camus	Fagaceae	Banj	Sd	Unknown	41
Randia dumetorum (Retz) Poiret Linn	Rubiaceae	Kaare	Rt	Paste with water The root of this plant and leaves of Acacia suma (Mimosaceae) are pounded with salt and applied externally	81
Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn) Benth ex Kurz	Apocynaceae	Nagbel, Bhuin karuan, Patal-garuda, Bhuikurma, Sarpagandha, Keramaddinagaddi, Sutranabhi, Sarpagandha lairusich, Sarpagandha	Lv, Rt	Leave juice used as antidote Roots and leaf buds crushed with milk to make into paste used both internally and externally on affected area	34, 39, 43, 62, 76, 99
Rhinacanthus nasutus (L) Kurz	Acanthaceae	Nagamalli	Lv	Fresh leaves are taken orally, as well as the paste of the leaf applied externally	49, 61
Rivea hypocrateriformis (Desr) Choisy	Convolvulaceae	Parh	Wp, Rt	The plant juice/paste is orally taken	95, 96
Rubus niveus Thunb	Rosaceae	–	Fr	Unknown	79
Ruta graveolense Linn	Rutaceae	Nagadali	Rt	Root paste is used	99
Sanseveria roxbhurgiana Schultes F	Agavaceae	Saganaara, Gaju kura	Rt	Tuberous root paste is applied on the area of snakebite	97
Saraca asoca (Roxb) De Wilde	Ceasalpiniaceae	Ashok, Asoka	Sd	Unknown	40
Sauromatum venosum (Ait) Kunth	Araceae	Halida, Samp ki dawa	Tb	The paste of tuber is applied on the affected area	33, 84
Saussurea costus (Falc) Lipsch	Asteraceae	Kuth	Rt	Unknown	41
Sesamum indicum Linn	Pedaliaceae	Til	Sd	Seeds are mixed with butter, ginger powder, and oil and given orally	54
Sida acuta Burm	Malvaceae	–	Wp	The whole plant extract is given internally and applied externally	3
Sida caprinifolia Linn	Malvaceae	Arivaal mania poondu	Lv	Leaf paste is used	90
Sida cordifolia Linn	Malvaceae	Kungyi	Wp	Unknown	82
Solanum nigrum Linn	Solanaceae	Makoi	Rt	Paste of dried root is applied	54
Solanum xanthocarpum Schard & Wendl	Solanceae	Bhui ringani, Bhat kataiyan, Choti kateli	Lv, Rt	Fresh leaf extract (paste or decoction) of this species is given	101
Soymida febrifuga A Juss	Meliaceae	Rohina	St, Br, Br, Rt	Fresh bark of this plant together with root of Holarrhena pubescens (1:1) are made into paste and mixed with drinking water given orally three times a day for 3 d	31
Sterculia urens Roxb	Sterculiaceae	Karaya	Br	Unknown	60
Strychnos nux-vomica Linn	Loganiaceae	Kajara, Kaasarka, Kanjiram, Vishamushti, Etti, Visakkotai, Yeti	Rt, Sd	Root bark juice in cow's milk is externally rubbed 3–4 times a day to treat The seed powder is also used	89
Strychnos potatorum Linn	Leguminoceae	Thethamkottai	Sd	Seed powder given orally	49
Tabernaemontana coronaria RBr	Apocynaceae	Nandibattalu huvu	Rt	The crushed root mixed with salt and turmeric is applied	81
Tabernaemontana divaricata (Linn) RBr	Apocynaceae	Nanjatte, Maddarasa, Kathona, Amli, Tengtere, Tetul	Rt, Lv Sd	The extract of the seed is given, as well as crushed paste applied on bitten area	80
Tamarindus indica Linn	Caesalpiniaceae	Puli	Sd, Rt	Unknown	51, 55
Tectona grandis Linn	Verbenaceae	Sagwan	Lv, Br	Unknown	44
Terminalia arjuna (DC) Wight & Arn	Combertaceae	Arjun, Marutham, Vellamarthu	Br	Bark paste applied externally (5 d)	45
Thottea siliquosa (lamk) Ding Hou	Aristolochiaceae	Kuttalvayana, Padamchurukkialpam, Kuttilavayana	Rt, Lv	Roots and leaves decoction are given orally	66, 89
Tiliacora acuminata (Lamk) Miers	Menispermaceae	Kappa teega	Lv	Leaf paste is applied on the affected area	31
Trewia nudiflora Linn	Euphorbiaceae	Panigambhar	Br	Pounded bark is taken internally	88
Trichisanthes cucumerina Linn	Cucurbitaceae	Nagfani beldi	Tb	Powder of tuber is applied locally	84
Tridax procumbens Linn	Asteraceae	Munya arxa, Dagad Ful	Lv	The leaves are crushed and the juice is dripped on the wound of snakebite Juice is taken orally after its dilution with some quanty of water	62, 76
Tylophora indica (Burm f) Merr	Asclepiadaceae	Nangilai, Asthamakodi	Lv, Rt	Paste of leaf and root is mixed with equal amount of root paste of Rauvolfia serpentina and applied externally on the spot, as well as leaf juice alone taken internally	31, 63, 65
Urginea indica (Roxb) Kunth	Liliaceae	Koliknada	Cm	Half of the corm is ground with some quantity of black pepper seeds & animal fat (pure ghee) and given in three doses within a day	35
Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertn	Rhamnaceae	Rakta pichula	Br	The infusion of bark is given orally	43
Vitex negundo Linn	Verbenaceae	Nukki, Lakkigida, Karinochi notchi, Nishindi, Shet nishinda	Br, Rt, Lv, Sd	Leaf paste applied over the bitten area (5 d), as well as root extract is given with warm water	81
Vitex penduncularis Wall	Verbenaceae	Charaigorh	Br	Decoction of the bark is given orally at 30 min intervals	62, 88
Zingiber rubens Roxb	Zingiberaceae	Pauphok	Lv	The leaves are torn into thin strips and rope is made that is used to tie up parts of snakebite to prevent flow of venom in blood	45

Abbreviations used – Ap, arial portion; Bb, bulb; Bd, bud; Br, bark; Cm, corm; Fl, flower; Fr, fruit; Gr, grain; Gu, gum; Lv, leaves; Lx, latex; Pd, pods; Pl, poultice; Pn, penduncle; Re, resin; Rt, root; Rz, rhizomes; Sd, seeds; Sh, shoot; St, stem; Tb, tuber; Tn, tendril; Un, unknown; Wp, whole plant; d, day(s); h, hour(s).