Table 1.
Recent works on natural and synthetic polymeric bioinks and their various properties related to 3D printing
| Bioink polymers | Bioink concentration | Cell density & viability | Gelation method | Temperature used | Tested cell types | Days | Applications | Advantages (A) & disadvantages (DA) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agarose & its blends | 20 mg/mL | 2.5 × 105 /mL > 70% |
Thermal /ionic | 30–40 °C | Bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) | 7 | Bone - tissue eng (TE) | A: Better mechanical strength, low-price DA: Inferior cell adhesion |
[40, 120–122] |
| Agarose-based gel | 2% (w/v) | 70:25:5 ratio of 3 cell types 83–97% |
Thermal & ionic x-linking | 4 °C to 70 °C | Smooth muscle cells, human endothelial cells, and NIH 3 T3 fibroblasts | 10 | Vascular TE | ||
| Agarose & its blends | 3% (w/v) | 1.6 × 105/mL 98.8% |
Thermal x-linking | 37 °C | MSCs | 21 | Adipose & bone TE | A: Quick gelation, low price, high shape integrity DA: Inferior cell adhesion, Clogging |
[32, 49, 121–123] |
| Alginate | 1% | 5 × 106/mL 90.8% |
Ionic crosslinking | 37 °C 37 °C 37 °C |
NIH3T3 fibroblasts | 1 | Vascular TE | ||
| Alginate | 1–2% | 2.5 × 105/mL 95% |
Ionic x-linking | 40 °C | Bone marrow stromal cells | 10 | Bone TE | ||
| Collagen | 0.223% | 1 × 106/mL 95% |
pH-mediated | 37 °C | Dermal fibroblasts | 8 | Perfusable artificial tissue | A: Enhance cell adhesion factors like RGD DA: Low mechanical stability, high cost, gelation slow, clogging |
[34, 121, 122, 124] |
| Collagen/alginate | 15 mg/mL collagen 0.1 g/mL alginate |
1 × 107/mL 90% |
Ionic | RT | Primary chondrocytes | 21 | Cartilage TE | ||
| Gelatin | 10–20% | 5.9 × 105 /mL 91% |
Thermal | 60 °C | Fibroblasts | 8 | TE, stem cell, & cancer research | A: Enhances cell attachment, reversible, low cost DA: Low stability, delicate, less functionalities w/o chemical alteration |
[72, 121, 122, 125, 126] |
| Gelatin/ Agarose | 0.06% | 1 × 107/mL 84.6% |
Ionic x-linking | 37 °C-RT | NIH3T3 | 7 | Heart valve regeneration | ||
| Gelatin with transglutaminase (TG) | 5% (w/v) with 2.5–20 units of TG/g of gelatin | 1 × 107/mL High |
Thermal & chemical | 4–37 °C | HepG2 | 15 | Tumor modeling & regenerative medicine. | ||
| Hyaluronic acid (HA) with gelatin | 0.5% (w/v) HA-Ph, 3.0% (w/v) Gelatin-Ph, Ru(II) & SPS | 3.0 × 105 /mL > 95% |
Photoinitiated gelation | 25 °C | Human adipose stem cells (hADSCs) | 25 | TE & regenerative medicine | A: Enhances cell growth, angiogenesis, quick gelation, high shape integrity DA: Fast degradation, low mechanical properties |
[79, 80, 122, 127] |
| HA with methylcellulose (MC) | 2.0 wt% HA, 5–9 wt% of MC | 25:1 ratio > 75% |
Thermal | 4–37 °C | MSCs | 15 | TE | ||
| Fibrin | 10 mg/ml, 20 U/ml | 2 × 106/mL 74.27% |
Fibrinogen-thrombin | 37 °C | NT2 neurons | 15 | Nerve TE | A: Enhances angiogenesis, quick gelation DA: Clogging, low mechanical properties |
|
| Silk/PEG | 5–10% w/v | 2.5 × 106 /mL Good |
Thermal, chemical | 37 °C | Human bone marrow MSCs & fibroblasts | 84 | TE | A: Low cost, good cell adhesion DA: Modification required, long process |
[97, 122] |
| Decellularized the adipose (adECM), cartilage (cdECM) & heart (hdECM) | 3% | 1 to 5 × 106/mL > 90% |
Thermal & pH | 37 °C | Human adipose-derived stem cells (hASCs) & human mesenchymal stromal cells (hTMSCs) | 14 | TE, in vitro drug screening & tissue/cancer model. | A: Resemble ECM, high cell adhesion DA: Medium shape integrity, tissue availability, long procedure |
[100, 103, 122] |
| HdECM with vitamin B2 & VEGF | 20 mg/Ml | 5 × 106/mL 90–95% |
Photo- & thermal- polymerization | 37 °C | Human c-kit + cardiac progenitor cells (hCPCs), MSCs | 56 | Cardiac TE | ||
| Pluronic F127 | 1.6 mmol/g | 2 × 107/ml 91.3% |
Photo-polymerization | 37 °C | Bovine chondrocytes | 7 | Cartilage TE | A: Reversible polymer, synthetic DA: Low mechanical properties, fast degradation |
[49, 111, 121, 122], |
| Pluronic PF127 /alginate | 2 wt% alginate with 20 wt% Pluronic | 2 × 106/mL 85% |
Ionic | 37 °C | Murine C2C12 cells | 21 | Muscle TE | ||
| PEG & peptides | 10% w/v | 6 × 106/mL 90% |
Photo-polymerization | RT | hMSCs | 21 | Bone & cartilage TE | A: Good compatibility when blended DA: UV curing, low cell adhesion and mechanical properties |
[47, 122] |
| Gelatin Methacrylate (GelMA) | 10–20% | 1.5 × 106/mL 97% |
Photo-polymerization | 27–30 °C | HepG2 | 14 | Liver TE | A: Easy degeneration, mechanically strong, blending possible, printability high DA: Photo-polymerization may affect cell, delayed gelation |
[122, 128–131] |
| Gelatin Methacrylate (GelMA) | 10% | 1.5 × 107/mL 75% to 90% |
Photo-polymerization | 37 °C | Articular cartilage- chondroprogenitor cells ACPCs & MSCs | 52 | Cartilage TE | ||
| GelMA & Gellan gum | 3–20% with 0–1.5% gellan gum | 10–20 × 106/mL Good |
Photo-polymerization | 15–37 °C | Equine chondrocytes | 42 | Cartilage TE | ||
| GelMA, GelSH & heparin | 10% with 1% of heparin | 15 × 106/mL 74–86% |
Photo-polymerization | RT | Chondrocytes | 35 | Cartilage TE |