Fig. 1.

Strategies for restoration of mucosal immunosenescence. Reduced induction of antigen-specific intestinal SIgA antibody responses were noted in 1-year-old mice. Adoptive transfer of AMSCs prior to oral vaccination successfully induced protective antigen-specific SIgA antibody responses. In contrast, NALT functions remained intact during aging with notable signs of mucosal immunosenescence (loss of antigen-specific SIgA antibody responses) seen only in 2-year-old mice. To overcome impaired mucosal immunity, vaccines containing pFL and CpG ODN have been developed for protective antigen-specific SIgA antibody induction.