Table 2.

Key challenges for mathematical modelling of zoonotic hybrid schistosome systems in sub‐Saharan Africa, and potential solutions and research priorities to address these

Challenge	Potential solutions and research priorities
Incorporating multiple schistosome species and their hybrids	Extension of existing (e.g., worm burden) model frameworks to incorporate multiple schistosome genotypes and hybridization mechanisms Use of diagnostic tests that enable collection of molecular material which permit subsequent laboratory analysis to distinguish schistosome genotypes Use of multilocus techniques that enable identification of sexual direction of hybridization
Incorporating multiple definitive host species	Epidemiological studies in livestock and wildlife populations Sampling to include both faeces and urine specimens from livestock species Adaptation and validation of existing diagnostic tests for animal schistosomes in Africa
Necessity for model to incorporate heterogeneities and mating interactions between schistosome species and their hybrids	Model structure to differentiate between schistosome genotypes and incorporate mating probabilities, for example worm burden framework
Parameterizing multihost transmission dynamics and estimating zoonotic spillover	Collection of field data on livestock population densities and egg‐shedding rates Use of currently available laboratory techniques to identify F1‐type hybrids, for example multilocus techniques Further development of laboratory techniques such as whole‐genome sequencing, to better track “who acquires infection from whom”
Characterizing heterogeneities in “fitness” traits that may influence transmission rates of hybrids vs “pure” schistosome species and how these traits may be changing in response to evolutionary pressure	Empirical studies to compare biological traits (e.g., cercariae‐shedding rates by snails and egg reduction rate postpraziquantel treatment in definitive hosts) between schistosome genotypes
Quantification of spillover contribution of different livestock species	Field data to include egg‐shedding rate per livestock host, livestock population estimates