| Men | Women | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Cross-sectional | Longitudinal | Cross-sectional | Longitudinal | |||
|
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| Total sample | Total sample | Non-migrant sample |
Total sample | Total sample | Non-migrant sample |
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| Persons | n=1,522,803 | n=1,522,803 | n=1,034,375 | n=183,618 | n=183,618 | n=112,670 |
|
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| Person-year observations | n=6,668,033 | n=6,668,033 | n=4,229,727 | n=773,511 | n=773,511 | n=424,329 |
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| Coefficient (SE) |
Coefficient (SE) |
Coefficient (SE) |
Coefficient (SE) |
Coefficient (SE) |
Coefficient (SE) |
|
| 1 mile | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Chain supermarkets | ||||||
| 0 stores | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1 or more stores | −0.010 | 0.007* | 0.001 | −0.034 | 0.009 | −0.002 |
| (0.014) | (0.003) | (0.005) | (0.036) | (0.011) | (0.018) | |
| Non-chain supermarkets | ||||||
| 0 stores | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1 or more stores | −0.027 | −0.007 | −0.002 | −0.020 | −0.005 | −0.033 |
| (0.017) | (0.004) | (0.005) | (0.039) | (0.011) | (0.021) | |
| Mass merchandisers | ||||||
| 0 stores | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1 or more stores | 0.123*** | 0.011* | −0.004 | 0.081 | 0.019 | −0.000 |
| (0.016) | (0.005) | (0.007) | (0.043) | (0.014) | (0.025) | |
| Chain fast food restaurants | ||||||
| 0 restaurants | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1–2 restaurants | 0.027 | 0.016*** | 0.018** | 0.059 | 0.009 | 0.009 |
| (0.014) | (0.005) | (0.006) | (0.039) | (0.014) | (0.022) | |
| 3–6 restaurants | 0.057** | 0.015** | 0.012 | 0.139** | 0.025 | 0.035 |
| (0.018) | (0.006) | (0.009) | (0.051) | (0.017) | (0.027) | |
| 7+ restaurants | 0.085*** | 0.025*** | 0.019 | 0.168** | 0.007 | 0.030 |
| (0.025) | (0.007) | (0.012) | (0.062) | (0.021) | (0.034) | |
| Non-chain fast food restaurants | ||||||
| 0 restaurants | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1–2 restaurants | −0.014 | 0.013*** | 0.013** | −0.035 | −0.025* | −0.032 |
| (0.014) | (0.004) | (0.005) | (0.037) | (0.011) | (0.019) | |
| 3–6 restaurants | −0.062** | 0.013** | 0.015* | −0.130** | −0.013 | 0.002 |
| (0.020) | (0.005) | (0.007) | (0.047) | (0.014) | (0.025) | |
| 7+ restaurants | −0.206*** | 0.010 | 0.013 | −0.426*** | −0.024 | −0.015 |
| (0.028) | (0.006) | (0.009) | (0.069) | (0.020) | (0.034) | |
|
| ||||||
| 3 miles | ||||||
|
| ||||||
| Chain supermarkets | ||||||
| 0 stores | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1–2 stores | 0.006 | 0.003 | −0.005 | −0.078 | 0.012 | −0.024 |
| (0.020) | (0.006) | (0.008) | (0.050) | (0.018) | (0.027) | |
| 3–6 stores | −0.039 | 0.003 | −0.001 | −0.106 | 0.016 | −0.033 |
| (0.029) | (0.007) | (0.010) | (0.063) | (0.021) | (0.031) | |
| 7+ stores | −0.078 | −0.001 | −0.013 | −0.156 | 0.004 | −0.048 |
| (0.045) | (0.008) | (0.011) | (0.082) | (0.025) | (0.039) | |
| Non-chain supermarkets | ||||||
| 0 stores | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1 store | −0.001 | −0.003 | −0.004 | 0.073* | 0.025* | 0.018 |
| (0.017) | (0.004) | (0.005) | (0.035) | (0.012) | (0.016) | |
| 2–3 stores | 0.010 | −0.010* | −0.010 | 0.104* | 0.026 | 0.030 |
| (0.024) | (0.005) | (0.006) | (0.046) | (0.015) | (0.021) | |
| 4+ stores | −0.080* | −0.017** | −0.015 | −0.000 | 0.006 | 0.008 |
| (0.037) | (0.006) | (0.009) | (0.069) | (0.020) | (0.029) | |
| Mass merchandisers | ||||||
| 0 stores | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1 store | 0.122*** | 0.009* | 0.007 | 0.158*** | −0.009 | −0.026 |
| (0.019) | (0.005) | (0.007) | (0.045) | (0.015) | (0.025) | |
| 2 stores | 0.196*** | 0.021*** | 0.016 | 0.161** | −0.010 | −0.018 |
| (0.022) | (0.006) | (0.009) | (0.054) | (0.017) | (0.031) | |
| 3+ stores | 0.283*** | 0.026*** | 0.012 | 0.338*** | 0.019 | 0.020 |
| (0.031) | (0.007) | (0.011) | (0.065) | (0.018) | (0.034) | |
| Chain fast food restaurants | ||||||
| 0 restaurants | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 1–14 restaurants | 0.024 | 0.012 | −0.004 | 0.062 | −0.041 | −0.063 |
| (0.020) | (0.007) | (0.012) | (0.069) | (0.026) | (0.051) | |
| 15–32 restaurants | 0.011 | 0.011 | −0.003 | 0.069 | −0.050 | −0.017 |
| (0.029) | (0.009) | (0.014) | (0.088) | (0.030) | (0.058) | |
| 33+ restaurants | 0.043 | 0.011 | −0.003 | 0.111 | −0.026 | 0.015 |
| (0.038) | (0.010) | (0.016) | (0.106) | (0.034) | (0.067) | |
| Non-chain fast food restaurants | ||||||
| 0–5 restaurants | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
| 6–18 restaurants | −0.091*** | 0.010 | 0.014 | −0.232*** | −0.018 | −0.009 |
| (0.022) | (0.005) | (0.007) | (0.057) | (0.016) | (0.022) | |
| 19–39 restaurants | −0.228*** | 0.005 | 0.009 | −0.411*** | −0.010 | −0.009 |
| (0.033) | (0.007) | (0.009) | (0.078) | (0.022) | (0.031) | |
| 40+ restaurants | −0.370*** (0.044) | −0.002 (0.008) | 0.002 (0.011) | −0.871*** (0.104) | −0.027 (0.027) | 0.007 (0.039) |
Authors’ analysis of participant BMI from the VA corporate Data Warehouse, 2009–2014; Urbanicity data from National Center for Health Statistics (2006, 2013); Census tract demographic data from US Census Bureau (2005–2009, 2006–2010, 2007–2011, 2008–2012, 2009–2013, 2010–2014); Food store data from InfoUSA (2008–2013); Fast food restaurant data from Dun & Bradstreet (2008–2013); Park data from TeleAtlas and NAVTEQ (2010, 2014); and Fitness facility data from InfoUSA (2008–2013).
Note: Covariates for cross-sectional and longitudinal models included year, marital status, multiple health conditions, region, population density, median household income, poverty, and accessibility of grocery stores, convenience stores, parks, and fitness facilities. Cross-sectional models also controlled for baseline age and race/ethnicity.
*
p ≤ 0.05
**
p ≤ 0.01
***
p ≤ 0.001