Table 1.
Demographic, behavioral, and psychometric results for prereading, beginning reading, and emergent reading stages and statistical comparisons among these stages
| Prereaders (Stage one, S1) | Beginning readers (Stage two, S2) | Emergent readers (Stage three, S3) | Developmental effect (F value) | Simple effect | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psychometric measures | ||||||
| Developmental stage | Before kindergarten | After kindergarten | After reading instruction | |||
| Age (months) | 64.3 ± 3.9 | 76.4 ± 4.0 | 94.3 ± 7.0 | F (2,54) = 399*** |
S1 < S2: t27 = 78.0, p < .001 S2 < S3: t27 = 13.7, p < .001 |
|
| CTOPP: elision | 4.2 ± 2.5 | 8.1 ± 3.3 | 13.0 ± 4.9 | F (2,52) = 60.6*** |
S1 < S2: t26 = 8.2, p < .001 S2 < S3: t27 = 5.2, p < .001 |
|
| CTOPP: blending | 6.1 ± 3.3 | 10.7 ± 2.6 | 13.2 ± 2.5 | F (2,54) = 103*** |
S1 < S2: t27 = 8.9, p < .001 S2 < S3: t27 = 6.3, p < .001 |
|
| CTOPP: nonword repetition | 7.2 ± 1.9 | 8.5 ± 2.2 | 10.0 ± 3.2 | F (2,54) = 11.0*** |
S1 < S2: t27 = 2.7, p = .01 S2 < S3: t27 = 2.4, p = .02 |
|
| RAN: objects | 70.0 ± 14.3 | 64.4 ± 17.2 | 47.5 ± 8.0 | F (2,48) = 45.7*** |
S1 > S2: t25 = −3.8, p < .001 S2 > S3: t26 = −5.8, p < .001 |
|
| CELF: core language | 44 ± 9.9 | 45.1 ± 9.8 | 46.8 ± 7.2 | F (2,44) = 1.7 | ‐ | |
| CELF: receptive language | 34.8 ± 4.7 | 36.0 ± 4.8 | 33.5 ± 5.9 | F (2,36) = 1.5 | ‐ | |
| CELF: expressive language | 37.1 ± 6.5 | 37.2 ± 6.1 | 35.2 ± 6.0 | F (2,42) = 1.9 | ‐ | |
| CELF: language structure | 44.3 ± 10.8 | 46.4 ± 9.3 | 45.8 ± 7.4 | F (2,32) = 0.09 | ‐ | |
| WRMT: letter ID | 28.3 ± 6.5 | 35.3 ± 3.9 | 39.4 ± 3.4 | F (2,52) = 56.5*** |
S1 < S2: t26 = 5.5, p < .001 S2 < S3: t27 = 7.4, p < .001 |
|
| WRMT: word ID | 5.4 ± 11.2 | 30.0 ± 16.0 | 60.5 ± 11.9 | F (2,52) = 252*** |
S1 < S2: t27 = 10.1, p < .001 S2 < S3: t26 = 12.9, p < .001 |
|
| In‐scanner performance | ||||||
| Age (months, imaging) | 65.5 ± 3.8 | 77.2 ± 3.9 | 95.4 ± 7.2 | F (2,54) = 400*** |
S1 < S2: t27 = 63.3, p < .001 S2 < S3: t27 = 14.0, p < .001 |
|
| Maximal head movement | Translational amplitude (mm) | 6.92 ± 6.3 | 5.62 ± 3.9 | 4.35 ± 3.5 | F (2,54) = 2.89 | ‐ |
| Rotation angle (radian) | 0.127 ± 0.13 | 0.098 ± 0.088 | 0.097 ± 0.18 | F (2,54) = 0.81 | ‐ | |
| Accuracy | FSM | 56.7% ± 0.29 | 69.6% ± 0.20 | 84.4% ± 0.18 | F (2,38) = 11.0*** |
S1 < S3: t24 = 2.5, p = .02 S2 < S3: t21 = 3.5, p = .002 |
| VM | 62.1% ± 0.23 | 70.5% ± 0.22 | 82.3% ± 0.16 | |||
| Response latency | FSM | 2457.7 ± 559.9 | 2264.6 ± 387.2 | 2094.2 ± 396.8 | F (2,38) = 2.96 | ‐ |
| VM | 2389.3 ± 525.9 | 2383.5 ± 487.1 | 2190.9 ± 463.6 | |||
Note. Abbreviations: CELF = Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals; CTOPP = Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing; FSM: First Sound Matching; RAN = Rapid Automatized Naming; VM: Voice Matching; WRMT = Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests.
Raw scores are presented to demonstrate developmental changes over the three reading stages. For RAN: objects, raw scores reflected time (seconds) spent naming all objects, and therefore were expected to decrease with age and increased reading fluency abilities. Due to missing data points for each assessment, degrees of freedom and significance level were adjusted accordingly. Results of simple effects are present only for the variables with a significant main effect (p < .05), and the comparison between S1 and S3 is not present if both the contrasts of S1 vs S2 and S2 vs S3 are significant.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.