Table 2.
Summary of Measurement Characteristics by Constructa
| Number of studies (k) | Multi-item | Reliability | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Attention and recall | 15 | ||
| Attention attracting | 8 | 1 | 1 of 1, α=0.86 |
| Attention duration | 2 | 0 | n/a |
| Recall/recognition | 5 | 0 | 0.95 inter-coder reliability |
| Response time | 3 | 0 | n/a |
| Warning reactions | 42 | ||
| Affective reactions | 24 | 19 | 15 of 19, α=0.74–0.98 in 12; r=0.36–0.94 in 3 |
| Avoidance | 3 | 1 | 1 of 1, α=0.90 |
| Clarity | 3 | 2 | 1 of 2, r=0.65 |
| Cognitive elaboration | 4 | 0 | n/a |
| Cognitive processing | 3 | 2 | 2 of 2 (α=0.89–0.91) |
| Credibility | 11 | 2 | 2 of 2, α=0.86–0.92 |
| Liking warning | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Message reactance | 4 | 4 | 4 of 4, α=0.58–0.93 |
| Smoking cravings | 5 | 3 | 2 of 3, r=0.33–0.35 |
| Social interactions | 2 | ||
| Social interactions intentions | 2 | 1 | 0 of 1 |
| Knowledge, attitudes and beliefs | 29 | ||
| Attitudes toward quitting | 2 | 1 | 1 of 1, α=0.65 |
| Imaginability of harm | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Knowledge | 2 | 1 | n/a |
| Pack/brand attitudes | 8 | 8 | 6 of 8, α=0.79–0.95 |
| Smoking attitudes | 9 | 9 | 5 of 9, α=0.67–0.95 |
| Perceived likelihood of harm | 15 | 12 | 6 of 12, α=0.78–0.95 |
| Perceived severity of harm | 2 | 1 | 0 of 1 |
| Response efficacy | 1 | 1 | 0 of 1 |
| Self-efficacy to quit | 4 | 2 | 1 of 2, r=0.33 |
| Smoker identity | 1 | 1 | 1 of 1, α=0.90 |
| Intentions | 25 | ||
| Information seeking | 2 | 0 | n/a |
| Intention to not start smoking | 4 | 2 | 2 of 2, α=0.86–0.87 |
| Intention to not smoke | 1 | 1 | 1 of 1, α=0.77 |
| Intention to quit smoking | 15 | 5 | 5 of 5, α=0.77–0.81 in 4; r=0.75 in 1 |
| Purchase interest | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Willingness to pay | 3 | 0 | n/a |
| Quitline calls | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Behavior | 4 | ||
| Smoking behavior | 4 | 0 | n/a |
| Perceived effectiveness | 41 | ||
| Motivate me to cut down on smoking | 3 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate me to forgo cigarettes | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate me to not smoke | 4 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate me to not start smoking | 4 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate me to smoke more | 2 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate me to quit smoking | 12 | 7 | 5 of 7, α=0.83–0.93 |
| Motivate me/others to not smoke (composite) | 3 | 2 | 2 of 2, α=0.85–0.88 |
| Motivate others to cut down smoking | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate others to not start smoking | 3 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate me to encourage others to quit smoking | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Motivate others to quit smoking | 7 | 2 | 1 of 2, α=0.89 |
| Be effective for me/others (scale) | 14 | 14 | 10 of 14, α=0.63–0.94 |
| Be generally effective (no referent) | 6 | 1 | 1 of 1, α=0.84 |
| Deter buying cigarettes | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Deter giving cigarettes as gift | 2 | 2 | 0 of 2 |
| Cause avoidance | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Communicate harm | 1 | 0 | n/a |
| Increase knowledge | 2 | 0 | n/a |
| Be useful | 1 | 0 | n/a |
a Some studies included more than one construct per category.