Figure 3. Potential targets and therapeutic strategies for treating Parkinson’s disease based on autophagy-lysosomal pathway, bioenergetics and metabolism, as well as redox signaling and oxidative-reductive stress.

Major efforts have been made in recent years to develop broad spectrum and/or organelle targeted antioxidant strategies, and enhanced autophagy, mitophagy, and lysosomal activities. Highlighted in this figure are some of the key events of metabolic, oxidative-reductive, and proteotoxic stress (in boxes), as well as molecules that have been tested in in vitro and animal models (in green) that target metabolism and autophagy/mitophagy/lysosomal pathways.