Table 3.
Results of the moderator analyses for preventive interventions (bivariate models)
| Moderator variables | # Studies | # ES | Intercept/mean d (95% CI) | β 1 (95% CI) | F (df1, df2)a | p b | Level 2 variance | Level 3 variance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall effect | 91 | 217 | 0.263 (0.197, 0.329)*** | |||||
| A: Study design characteristics | ||||||||
| Publication year | 91 | 217 | 0.264 (0.197, 0.330)*** | 0.002 (− 0.005, 0.009) | 0.211 (1, 215) | .646 | .028*** | .068*** |
| Sample characteristics | ||||||||
| Sample size | 91 | 217 | 0.263 (0.197, 0.330)*** | − 0.000 (− 0.000, 0.000) | 2.559 (1, 215) | .111 | .027*** | .069*** |
| Age of the parents | 18 | 49 | 0.377 (0.239, 0.515)*** | 0.013 (− 0.015, 0.040) | 0.865 (1, 47) | .357 | .000 | .060*** |
| Percentage cultural minorities | 63 | 163 | 0.817 (− 0.084, 1.718)+ | 0.190 (− 0.084, 0.464) | 1.867 (1, 161) | .174 | .023*** | .063*** |
| Design characteristics | ||||||||
| Research design | 3.720 (1, 215) | .055+ | .028*** | .064*** | ||||
| RCT (RC) | 63 | 159 | 0.226 (0.151, 0.301)*** | |||||
| Quasi-experimental | 29 | 58 | 0.347 (0.238, 0.455)*** | 0.121 (− 0.003, 0.245)+ | ||||
| Pilot/feasibility study | 0.009 (1, 215) | .922 | .028*** | .068*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 87 | 213 | 0.263 (0.195, 0.330)*** | |||||
| Yes | 4 | 4 | 0.282 (− 0.111, 0.676) | 0.020 (− 0.380, 0.419) | ||||
| Outcome characteristics | ||||||||
| Follow-up period | 40 | 80 | 0.261 (0.150, 0.372)*** | 0.002 (0.000, 0.003)* | 5.480 (1, 78) | .022* | .014*** | .092*** |
| Type of outcome measure | 1.727 (2, 214) | .180 | .027*** | .068*** | ||||
| Self-report parents (RC) | 62 | 147 | 0.296 (0.221, 0.371)*** | |||||
| Official reports | 41 | 58 | 0.213 (0.120, 0.305)*** | − 0.083 (− 0.179, 0.012)+ | ||||
| Other | 7 | 12 | 0.200 (− 0.012, 0.413)+ | − 0.095 (− 0.311, 0.120) | ||||
| B: Contextual factors | ||||||||
| Type of families served | 0.686 (2, 214) | .505 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| Risk group (questionnaire) (RC) | 36 | 104 | 0.308 (0.205, 0.411)*** | |||||
| Risk group (risk factor) | 49 | 95 | 0.226 (0.133, 0.319)*** | − 0.082 (− 0.221, 0.057) | ||||
| General population | 8 | 18 | 0.266 (0.061, 0.472)*** | − 0.042 (− 0.271, 0.188) | ||||
| General aim of the intervention | 0.014 (1, 215) | .906 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| Reducing risk (RC) | 85 | 199 | 0.262 (0.194, 0.331)*** | |||||
| General prevention | 8 | 18 | 0.275 (0.071, 0.479)** | 0.013 (− 0.197, 0.223) | ||||
| Delivery setting | 0.772 (2, 208) | .463 | .026*** | .072*** | ||||
| Home/ambulant (RC) | 47 | 125 | 0.288 (0.195, 0.381)*** | |||||
| Treatment center | 19 | 45 | 0.273 (0.128, 0.418)*** | − 0.015 (− 0.188, 0.158) | ||||
| Combination of locations | 21 | 41 | 0.185 (0.046, 0.323)** | − 0.103 (− 0.270, 0.064) | ||||
| Post/prenatal | 1.571 (2, 212) | .210 | .028*** | .065*** | ||||
| Postnatal (RC) | 54 | 135 | 0.304 (0.219, 0.389)*** | |||||
| Prenatal | 4 | 11 | 0.293 (0.060, 0.527)* | − 0.010 (− 0.256, 0.235) | ||||
| Prenatal and postnatal | 34 | 69 | 0.187 (0.080, 0.293)*** | − 0.117 (− 0.253, 0.019)+ | ||||
| Type of intervention | 3.616 (7, 209) | .001*** | .028*** | .050*** | ||||
| Home visitation intervention (RC) | 45 | 105 | 0.210 (0.126, 0.293)*** | |||||
| Parent training | 23 | 56 | 0.428 (0.305, 0.551)*** | 0.218 (0.070, 0.367)** | ||||
| Family-based/multisystemic | 4 | 7 | 0.343 (0.027, 0.660)* | 0.134 (− 0.194, 0.461) | ||||
| Substance-abuse intervention | 1 | 1 | 1.852 (0.933, 2.770)*** | 1.642 (0.720, 2.564)*** | ||||
| Before-school intervention | 4 | 8 | 0.148 (− 0.117, 0.413) | − 0.062 (− 0.335, 0.212) | ||||
| General prevention | 4 | 16 | 0.024 (− 0.219, 0.267) | − 0.186 (− 0.442, 0.071) | ||||
| Crisis intervention | 1 | 2 | 0.407 (− 0.114, 0.929) | 0.198 (− 0.330, 0.726) | ||||
| Combined intervention | 15 | 22 | 0.174 (0.024, 0.324)* | − 0.036 (− 0.203, 0.131) | ||||
| Specific individual interventions | 0.552 (13, 203) | .889 | .027*** | .080*** | ||||
| Other interventions (RC) | 49 | 84 | 0.311 (0.211, 0.411)*** | |||||
| ACT parents raising safe kids | 3 | 6 | 0.377 (− 0.013, 0.768)+ | 0.066 (− 0.337, 0.469) | ||||
| (Early) head start | 5 | 12 | 0.074 (− 0.208, 0.357) | − 0.237 (− 0.537, 0.063) | ||||
| Healthy families | 10 | 35 | 0.189 (− 0.004, 0.382)+ | − 0.123 (− 0.340, 0.095) | ||||
| Healthy start | 4 | 12 | 0.339 (0.012, 0.666)* | 0.028 (− 0.314, 0.369) | ||||
| Healthy steps | 2 | 10 | 0.189 (− 0.235, 0.614) | − 0.122 (− 0.558, 0.314) | ||||
| Intensive fam preservation serv | 1 | 2 | 0.407 (− 0.217, 1.030) | 0.095 (− 0.536, 0.727) | ||||
| Incredible years | 3 | 11 | 0.307 (− 0.085, 0.699) | − 0.005 (− 0.409, 0.400) | ||||
| NFP | 2 | 7 | 0.298 (− 0.146, 0.741) | − 0.013 (− 0.468, 0.441) | ||||
| Triple P | 4 | 18 | 0.417 (0.092, 0.741)* | 0.105 (− 0.234, 0.445) | ||||
| Parents as teachers | 2 | 4 | 0.079 (− 0.376, 0.535) | − 0.232 (− 0.698, 0.234) | ||||
| Safe environment for every Kid | 2 | 7 | 0.058 (− 0.360, 0.475) | − 0.254 (− 0.683, 0.176) | ||||
| Child–parent enrichment progr. | 2 | 4 | 0.102 (− 0.375, 0.580) | − 0.209 (− 0.697, 0.279) | ||||
| SafeCare | 1 | 3 | 0.139 (− 0.491, 0.768) | − 0.173 (− 0.811, 0.465) | ||||
| Age of the child | 1.162 (3, 200) | .325 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| Unborn child/baby (≤ 2) (RC) | 59 | 132 | 0.222 (0.140, 0.304)*** | |||||
| Infant/toddler (2–5) | 19 | 53 | 0.365 (0.219, 0.512)*** | 0.143 (− 0.025, 0.311)+ | ||||
| Primary school (6–12) | 9 | 17 | 0.305 (0.104, 0.505)** | 0.083 (− 0.127, 0.292) | ||||
| High school (≥ 12) | 1 | 2 | 0.465 (− 0.188, 1.118) | 0.243 (− 0.415, 0.902) | ||||
| C: Structural elements | ||||||||
| Type of worker | 4.789 (1, 207) | .030* | .028*** | .065*** | ||||
| Only professionals (RC) | 41 | 109 | 0.334 (0.236, 0.432)*** | |||||
| Professionals and others | 46 | 100 | 0.184 (0.091, 0.277)*** | − 0.150 (− 0.285, − 0.015)* | ||||
| Duration | 4.484 (3, 199) | .005** | .021*** | .047*** | ||||
| 0–6 months (RC) | 25 | 82 | 0.361 (0.268, 0.454)*** | |||||
| 7–12 months | 5 | 8 | − 0.051 (− 0.295, 0.192) | − 0.412 (− 0.673, − 0.152)** | ||||
| 13–24 months | 23 | 41 | 0.236 (0.119, 0.354)*** | − 0.124 (− 0.273, 0.024)+ | ||||
| > 24 months | 25 | 72 | 0.190 (0.090, 0.289)*** | − 0.171 (− 0.302, − 0.041)* | ||||
| Minimum duration (in weeks) | 23 | 49 | 0.343 (0.198, 0.488)*** | − 0.002 (− 0.004, 0.001) | 2.303 (1, 47) | .136 | .026*** | .067* |
| Maximum duration (in weeks) | 62 | 152 | 0.242 (0.173, 0.311)*** | − 0.001 (− 0.002, − 0.000)* | 6.337 (1, 150) | .013* | .020*** | .043*** |
| Average number of sessions | 43 | 96 | 0.243 (0.145, 0.340)*** | − 0.001 (− 0.008, 0.006) | 0.133 (1, 94) | .716 | .005 | .077*** |
| Interval sessions | 1.345 (4, 153) | .256 | .018*** | .056*** | ||||
| Weekly (RC) | 30 | 63 | 0.352 (0.244, 0.461)*** | |||||
| Multiple sessions a week | 4 | 8 | 0.325 (0.025, 0.626)* | − 0.027 (− 0.346, 0.292) | ||||
| Every other week/monthly | 12 | 20 | 0.277 (0.119, 0.435)*** | − 0.075 (− 0.267, 0.116) | ||||
| Ascending/descending intensity | 25 | 62 | 0.185 (0.075, 0.295)** | − 0.167 (− 0.319, − 0.015)* | ||||
| Every 3 months | 1 | 5 | 0.107 (− 0.380, 0.595) | − 0.245 (− 0.745, 0.254) | ||||
| C: Specific intervention practices (content) | ||||||||
| Parenting skills | 1.513 (1, 215) | .220 | .028*** | .067*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 21 | 48 | 0.188 (0.051, 0.325)** | |||||
| Yes | 71 | 169 | 0.284 (0.210, 0.359)*** | 0.096 (− 0.058 0.251) | ||||
| Personal skills parents | 0.083 (1, 215) | .774 | .028*** | .068*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 56 | 113 | 0.255 (0.167, 0.343)*** | |||||
| Yes | 36 | 104 | 0.274 (0.173, 0.376)*** | 0.020 (− 0.114, 0.154) | ||||
| Parents’ self-confidence | 4.389 (1, 215) | .037* | .027*** | .067*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 73 | 180 | 0.229 (0.156, 0.302)*** | |||||
| Yes | 21 | 37 | 0.397 (0.255, 0.539)*** | 0.168 (0.010, 0.325)* | ||||
| Attitudes/expectations toward parenting | 1.486 (1, 215) | .224 | .028*** | .066*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 81 | 202 | 0.250 (0.181, 0.319)*** | |||||
| Yes | 10 | 15 | 0.391 (0.173, 0.608)*** | 0.141 (− 0.087, 0.369)*** | ||||
| Knowledge of typical child development | 0.710 (1, 215) | .400 | .028*** | .067*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 33 | 76 | 0.300 (0.190, 0.411)*** | |||||
| Yes | 59 | 141 | 0.243 (0.161, 0.324)*** | − 0.058 (− 0.193, 0.078) | ||||
| Social network of family | 0.068 (1, 215) | .795 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 66 | 153 | 0.269 (0.190, 0.348)*** | |||||
| Yes | 26 | 64 | 0.249 (0.124, 0.375)*** | − 0.020 (− 0.167, 0.128) | ||||
| Relationship between parents | 0.443 (1, 215) | .506 | .029*** | .066*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 80 | 185 | 0.270 (0.201, 0.339)*** | |||||
| Yes | 14 | 32 | 0.217 (0.069, 0.366)** | − 0.053 (− 0.208, 0.103)*** | ||||
| Relationship between parent and child | 0.379 (1, 215) | .539 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 45 | 107 | 0.243 (0.148, 0.337)*** | |||||
| Yes | 47 | 110 | 0.284 (0.190, 0.379)*** | 0.042 (− 0.092, 0.175) | ||||
| Mental health problems parents | 0.148 (1, 215) | .701 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 71 | 159 | 0.256 (0.180, 0.333)*** | |||||
| Yes | 22 | 58 | 0.286 (0.154, 0.417)*** | 0.029 (− 0.121, 0.179) | ||||
| Empowerment | 0.555 (1, 215) | .457 | .028*** | .068*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 70 | 149 | 0.278 (0.201, 0.355)*** | |||||
| Yes | 22 | 68 | 0.221 (0.092, 0.350)*** | − 0.057 (− 0.207, 0.093) | ||||
| Social/emotional support | 0.450 (1, 215) | .503 | .028*** | .067*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 46 | 101 | 0.286 (0.191, 0.382)*** | |||||
| Yes | 46 | 116 | 0.242 (0.152, 0.332)*** | − 0.044 (− 0.174, 0.086) | ||||
| Well-being child | 2.142 (1, 215) | .145 | .028*** | .065*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 45 | 94 | 0.314 (0.218, 0.409)*** | |||||
| Yes | 48 | 123 | 0.220 (0.133, 0.306)*** | − 0.094 (− 0.221, 0.033) | ||||
| Child skills | 0.018 (1, 215) | .893 | .028*** | .069*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 77 | 182 | 0.262 (0.189, 0.334)*** | |||||
| Yes | 15 | 35 | 0.273 (0.113, 0.434)*** | 0.012 (− 0.162, 0.186) | ||||
| Practical support | 1.046 (1, 215) | .308 | .028*** | .067*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 67 | 157 | 0.283 (0.206, 0.359)*** | |||||
| Yes | 26 | 60 | 0.207 (0.082, 0.333)** | − 0.075 (− 0.220, 0.070)*** | ||||
| Motivation | 1.517 (1, 215) | .219 | .028*** | .067*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 88 | 209 | 0.271 (0.204, 0.339)*** | |||||
| Yes | 3 | 8 | 0.055 (− 0.283, 0.394) | − 0.216 (− 0.561, 0.130) | ||||
| D: Delivery techniques | ||||||||
| Modeling | 0.842 (1, 184) | .360 | .024*** | .078*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 52 | 112 | 0.253 (0.161, 0.346)*** | |||||
| Yes | 27 | 74 | 0.327 (0.199, 0.455)*** | 0.073 (− 0.084, 0.231) | ||||
| Role-playing | 1.025 (1, 184) | .313 | .025*** | .075*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 70 | 164 | 0.264 (0.186, 0.343)*** | |||||
| Yes | 9 | 22 | 0.384 (0.164, 0.603)*** | 0.120 (− 0.113, 0.352) | ||||
| Monitoring | 1.898 (1, 184) | .170 | .025*** | .076*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 61 | 145 | 0.307 (0.222, 0.392)*** | |||||
| Yes | 18 | 41 | 0.184 (0.031, 0.338)* | − 0.122 (− 0.297, 0.053) | ||||
| (Psycho) education | 1.712 (1, 184) | .192 | .025*** | .072*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 22 | 50 | 0.355 (0.216, 0.493)*** | |||||
| Yes | 58 | 136 | 0.249 (0.164, 0.333)*** | − 0.106 (− 0.266, 0.054) | ||||
| Homework assignments | 0.709 (1, 184) | .401 | .024*** | .076*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 72 | 160 | 0.268 (0.189, 0.346)*** | |||||
| Yes | 7 | 26 | 0.374 (0.137, 0.612)** | 0.107 (− 0.143, 0.357) | ||||
| Cognitive skills training | 1.784 (1, 184) | .183 | .024*** | .078*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 76 | 177 | 0.268 (0.192, 0.344)*** | |||||
| Yes | 4 | 9 | 0.504 (0.163, 0.846)** | 0.236 (− 0.113, 0.585) | ||||
| Family group conferencing | 0.246 (1, 184) | .620 | .024*** | .077*** | ||||
| No (RC) | 77 | 184 | 0.276 (0.201, 0.351)*** | |||||
| Yes | 2 | 2 | 0.424 (− 0.161, 1.010) | 0.148 (− 0.442, 0.739) |
# Studies number of studies, # ES number of effect sizes, mean d mean effect size (Cohen’s d), CI confidence interval, β 1 estimated regression coefficient, df degrees of freedom, level 2 variance variance within studies, Level 3 variance variance between studies
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
+ p < .1
aOmnibus test of al regression coefficients of the model
b p value of the omnibus test