Table 4.
Results of the moderator analyses for curative interventions (bivariate models)
| Moderator variables | # Studies | # ES | Intercept/mean d (95% CI) | β 1 (95% CI) | F (df1, df2)a | p b | Level 2 variance | Level 3 variance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Overall effect | 32 | 135 | 0.364 (0.227, 0.502)*** | |||||
| A: Study design characteristics | ||||||||
| Publication year | 32 | 135 | 0.396 (0.252, 0.540)*** | − 0.013 (− 0.031, 0.006) | 1.889 (1, 133) | .172 | .144*** | .060* |
| Sample characteristics | ||||||||
| Sample size | 32 | 135 | 0.408 (0.267, 0.550)*** | − 0.001 (− 0.002, 0.000)+ | 3.489 (1, 133) | .064+ | .145*** | .054* |
| Age of the parents | 12 | 40 | 0.468 (0.218, 0.718)*** | 0.009 (− 0.046, 0.065) | 0.111 (1, 38) | .741 | .059*** | .121*** |
| Percentage cultural minorities | 20 | 111 | 0.396 (0.270, 0.523)*** | − 0.592 (− 1.239, 0.055)+ | 3.284 (1, 109) | .073+ | .182*** | .010 |
| Design characteristics | ||||||||
| Research design | 0.265 (1, 133) | .608 | .148*** | .063* | ||||
| RCT (RC) | 19 | 115 | 0.340 (0.171, 0.509)*** | |||||
| Quasi-experimental | 13 | 20 | 0.417 (0.173, 0.662)*** | 0.077 (− 0.220, 0.374) | ||||
| Pilot/feasibility study | 1.523 (1, 133) | .219 | .147*** | .058+ | ||||
| No (RC) | 29 | 119 | 0.333 (0.188, 0.478)*** | |||||
| Yes | 3 | 16 | 0.594 (0.201, 0.986)** | 0.261 (− 0.157, 0.679) | ||||
| Outcome characteristics | ||||||||
| Follow-up period | 22 | 85 | 0.339 (0.168, 0.509)*** | 0.005 (− 0.008, 0.017) | 0.510 (1, 83) | .477 | .095*** | .074+ |
| Type of outcome measure | 3.241 (2, 132) | .042* | .134*** | .059* | ||||
| Self-report parents (RC) | 14 | 72 | 0.216 (0.033, 0.398)*** | |||||
| Official reports | 26 | 39 | 0.498 (0.328, 0.668)*** | 0.282 (0.057, 0.508)* | ||||
| Other | 4 | 24 | 0.200 (− 0.075, 0.474) | − 0.016 (− 0.265, 0.233) | ||||
| B: Contextual factors | ||||||||
| Delivery setting | 0.202 (2, 124) | .817 | .151*** | .060* | ||||
| Combination of locations (RC) | 5 | 63 | 0.350 (0.028, 0.672)*** | |||||
| Home/ambulant | 13 | 36 | 0.431 (0.217, 0.644)*** | 0.081 (− 0.305, 0.467) | ||||
| Treatment center | 9 | 28 | 0.479 (0.220, 0.737)*** | 0.129 (− 0.273, 0.531) | ||||
| Post-/prenatal | ||||||||
| Postnatal (RC) | 29 | 132 | 0.359 (0.215, 0.502)*** | 0.117 (1, 133) | .733 | .149*** | .063* | |
| Prenatal and postnatal | 3 | 3 | 0.459 (− 0.102, 1.020) | 0.100 (− 0.479, 0.679) | ||||
| Type of intervention | 0.119 (5, 129) | .988 | .150*** | .084* | ||||
| Family-based/multisystemic (RC) | 14 | 60 | 0.346 (0.132, 0.561)** | |||||
| Home visitation intervention | 6 | 14 | 0.344 (− 0.009, 0.697)+ | − 0.003 (− 0.416, 0.411) | ||||
| Parent training | 6 | 11 | 0.415 (0.025, 0.806)* | 0.069 (− 0.376, 0.515) | ||||
| Substance abuse intervention | 3 | 18 | 0.385 (− 0.025, 0.795)+ | 0.039 (− 0.424, 0.501) | ||||
| Crisis intervention | 2 | 2 | 0.335 (− 0.376, 1.047) | − 0.011 (− 0.754, 0.732) | ||||
| Cognitive behavioral therapy | 2 | 30 | 0.445 (0.123, 0.767)** | 0.098 (− 0.178, 0.375) | ||||
| Specific individual interventions | 0.375 (6, 128) | .894 | .148*** | .081* | ||||
| Other interventions (RC) | 17 | 100 | 0.402 (0.200, 0.603)*** | |||||
| Parent–child interaction therapy | 3 | 9 | 0.270 (− 0.184, 0.724) | − 0.132 (− 0.629, 0.365) | ||||
| FGC/FGDM | 5 | 8 | 0.133 (− 0.269, 0.535) | − 0.268 (− 0.718, 0.181) | ||||
| Intensive fam preservation serv | 2 | 2 | 0.335 (− 0.369, 1.040) | − 0.066 (− 0.799, 0.667) | ||||
| Incredible years | 2 | 4 | 0.461 (− 0.167, 1.089) | 0.060 (− 0.600, 0.719) | ||||
| MST (CAN/BSF) | 2 | 10 | 0.545 (0.023, 1.068)* | 0.143 (− 0.417, 0.703) | ||||
| Project 12-ways | 2 | 2 | 0.470 (− 0.235, 1.176) | 0.069 (− 0.665, 0.802) | ||||
| Age of the child | 0.163 (3, 122) | .921 | .160*** | .074* | ||||
| Primary school (6–12) (RC) | 17 | 98 | 0.375 (0.176, 0.573)*** | |||||
| Unborn child/baby (≤ 2) | 3 | 3 | 0.460 (− 0.127, 1.047) | 0.086 (− 0.534, 0.706) | ||||
| Infant/toddler (2–5) | 7 | 17 | 0.267 (− 0.045, 0.579)+ | − 0.108 (− 0.478, 0.262) | ||||
| High school (≥ 12) | 1 | 8 | 0.391 (− 0.236, 1.018) | 0.016 (− 0.641, 0.674) | ||||
| C: Structural elements | ||||||||
| Type of worker | 0.543 (1, 130) | .463 | .153*** | .065 | ||||
| Professionals (RC) | 26 | 125 | 0.353 (0.201, 0.506)*** | |||||
| Not only professionals | 4 | 7 | 0.524 (0.093, 0.955)* | 0.170 (− 0.287, 0.627) | ||||
| Duration | 0.709 (3, 122) | .548 | .157*** | .063* | ||||
| 0–6 months (RC) | 15 | 91 | 0.453 (0.251, 0.656)*** | |||||
| 7–12 months | 5 | 15 | 0.311 (− 0.047, 0.668)+ | − 0.143 (− 0.546, 0.261) | ||||
| 13–24 months | 5 | 19 | 0.190 (− 0.120, 0.500) | − 0.263 (− 0.633, 0.107) | ||||
| 24 months | 1 | 1 | 0.437 (− 0.571, 1.446) | − 0.016 (− 1.044, 1.013) | ||||
| Minimum duration | 9 | 30 | 0.433 (0.185, 0.680)** | − 0.005 (− 0.022, 0.012) | 0.371 (1, 28) | .547 | .023 | .084+ |
| Maximum duration | 23 | 121 | 0.407 (0.266, 0.548)*** | − 0.002 (− 0.005, 0.001) | 1.601 (1, 119) | .208 | .163*** | .031 |
| Average number of sessions | 13 | 39 | 0.356 (0.198, 0.513)*** | − 0.009 (− 0.027, 0.008) | 1.146 (1, 37) | .291 | .070*** | .026 |
| Interval sessions | 0.387 (4, 111) | .818 | .172*** | .062+ | ||||
| Weekly (RC) | 7 | 80 | 0.430 (0.166, 0.695)*** | |||||
| Multiple sessions a week | 5 | 14 | 0.452 (0.086, 0.817)* | 0.021 (− 0.430, 0.472) | ||||
| Every other week/monthly | 1 | 2 | 0.885 (− 0.064, 1.835)+ | 0.455 (− 0.530, 1.440) | ||||
| Ascending/descending intensity | 5 | 19 | 0.344 (0.027, 0.662)* | − 0.086 (− 0.499, 0.327) | ||||
| Every 3 months | 1 | 1 | 0.108 (− 0.943, 1.159) | − 0.323 (− 1.407, 0.761) | ||||
| C: Specific intervention practices (content) | ||||||||
| Parenting skills | 5.089 (1, 133) | .026* | .150*** | .040 | ||||
| No (RC) | 10 | 45 | 0.190 (− 0.006, 0.387)+ | |||||
| Yes | 23 | 90 | 0.430 (0.290, 0.569)*** | 0.239 (0.029, 0.449)* | ||||
| Personal skills parents | 3.063 (1, 133) | .082+ | .142*** | .057* | ||||
| No (RC) | 10 | 20 | 0.177 (− 0.073, 0.559)+ | |||||
| Yes | 22 | 115 | 0.440 (0.280, 0.600)*** | 0.263 (− 0.034, 0.559)+ | ||||
| Parents’ self-confidence | 1.252 (1, 133) | .265 | .144*** | .062* | ||||
| No (RC) | 26 | 120 | 0.327 (0.174, 0.480)*** | |||||
| Yes | 6 | 15 | 0.525 (0.209, 0.842)** | 0.199 (− 0.153, 0.550) | ||||
| Attitudes/expectations parenting | 1.643 (1, 133) | .202 | .146*** | .061* | ||||
| No (RC) | 31 | 105 | 0.354 (0.215, 0.492)*** | |||||
| Yes | 2 | 30 | 0.529 (0.240, 0.818)*** | 0.176 (− 0.095, 0.446) | ||||
| Knowledge of typical child development | 1.059 (1, 133) | .305 | .152*** | .054 | ||||
| No (RC) | 27 | 124 | 0.393 (0.247, 0.538)*** | |||||
| Yes | 5 | 11 | 0.194 (− 0.159, 0.547) | − 0.199 (− 0.581, 0.183) | ||||
| Social network of family | 0.063 (1, 133) | .803 | .147*** | .065* | ||||
| No (RC) | 17 | 95 | 0.348 (0.154, 0.541)*** | |||||
| Yes | 15 | 40 | 0.383 (0.182, 0.585)*** | 0.035 (− 0.244, 0.315) | ||||
| Relationship between parents | 0.491 (1, 133) | .485 | .144*** | .070* | ||||
| No (RC) | 28 | 92 | 0.379 (0.232, 0.526)*** | |||||
| Yes | 6 | 43 | 0.297 (0.058, 0.536)* | − 0.082 (− 0.315, 0.150) | ||||
| Relationship between parent and child | 1.524 (1, 133) | .219 | .151*** | .055 | ||||
| No (RC) | 18 | 71 | 0.424 (0.259, 0.589)*** | |||||
| Yes | 15 | 64 | 0.296 (0.124, 0.469)*** | − 0.127 (− 0.332, 0.077) | ||||
| Mental health problems parents | 3.613 (1, 133) | .059+ | .142*** | .056* | ||||
| No (RC) | 20 | 95 | 0.258 (0.086, 0.431)** | |||||
| Yes | 12 | 40 | 0.521 (0.309, 0.733)*** | 0.263 (− 0.011, 0.536)+ | ||||
| Empowerment | 2.854 (1, 133) | .093+ | .151*** | .047+ | ||||
| No (RC) | 20 | 111 | 0.440 (0.282, 0.599)*** | |||||
| Yes | 12 | 24 | 0.203 (− 0.025, 0.431)+ | − 0.237 (− 0.515, 0.041)+ | ||||
| Social/emotional support | 4.581 (1, 133) | .034* | .149*** | .042 | ||||
| No (RC) | 24 | 121 | 0.296 (0.155, 0.437)*** | |||||
| Yes | 8 | 14 | 0.649 (0.355, 0.942)*** | 0.352 (0.027, 0.678)* | ||||
| Well-being child | 3.600 (1, 133) | .060+ | .144*** | .053+ | ||||
| No (RC) | 14 | 23 | 0.272 (0.108, 0.435)** | |||||
| Yes | 18 | 112 | 0.539 (0.313, 0.766)*** | 0.268 (− 0.011, 0.547)+ | ||||
| Skills child | 2.282 (1, 133) | .133 | .146*** | .058* | ||||
| No (RC) | 26 | 94 | 0.327 (0.183, 0.471)*** | |||||
| Yes | 7 | 41 | 0.499 (0.276, 0.723)*** | 0.172 (− 0.053, 0.398) | ||||
| Practical support | 0.311 (1, 133) | .578 | .146*** | .066* | ||||
| No (RC) | 20 | 108 | 0.335 (0.160, 0.510)*** | |||||
| Yes | 12 | 27 | 0.417 (0.185, 0.649)*** | 0.082 (− 0.209, 0.373) | ||||
| Motivation | 2.2021 (1, 133) | .157 | .148*** | .056+ | ||||
| No (RC) | 26 | 92 | 0.400 (0.256, 0.544)*** | |||||
| Yes | 7 | 43 | 0.239 (0.019, 0.459)* | − 0.161 (− 0.385, 0.063) | ||||
| D: Delivery techniques | ||||||||
| Modeling | 0.199 (1, 127) | .656 | .160*** | .069* | ||||
| No (RC) | 22 | 116 | 0.378 (0.209, 0.548)*** | |||||
| Yes | 7 | 13 | 0.294 (− 0.038, 0.627)+ | − 0.084 (− 0.457, 0.289) | ||||
| Role-playing | 0.091 (1, 127) | .764 | .158*** | .072* | ||||
| No (RC) | 20 | 109 | 0.347 (0.169, 0.525)*** | |||||
| Yes | 9 | 20 | 0.399 (0.108, 0.691)** | 0.052 (− 0.290, 0.394) | ||||
| Monitoring | 1.073 (1, 127) | .302 | .161*** | .060+ | ||||
| No (RC) | 23 | 116 | 0.323 (0.160, 0.485)*** | |||||
| Yes | 6 | 13 | 0.517 (0.183, 0.851)** | 0.194 (− 0.177, 0.565) | ||||
| (Psycho) education | 1.144 (1, 127) | .287 | .162*** | .061 | ||||
| No (RC) | 22 | 85 | 0.391 (0.234, 0.549)*** | |||||
| Yes | 8 | 44 | 0.266 (0.039, 0.494)* | − 0.125 (− 0.357, 0.106) | ||||
| Homework assignments | 1.951 (1, 127) | .165 | .161*** | .060+ | ||||
| No (RC) | 23 | 79 | 0.318 (0.160, 0.475)*** | |||||
| Yes | 7 | 50 | 0.479 (0.256, 0.702)*** | 0.162 (− 0.067, 0.390) | ||||
| Cognitive skills training | 1.197 (1, 127) | .276 | .165*** | .056 | ||||
| No (RC) | 23 | 77 | 0.326 (0.169, 0.483)*** | |||||
| Yes | 8 | 52 | 0.449 (0.232, 0.667)*** | 0.124 (− 0.100, 0.348) | ||||
| Family group conferencing | 1.529 (1, 127) | .218 | .154*** | .070* | ||||
| No (RC) | 22 | 112 | 0.412 (0.241, 0.583)*** | |||||
| Yes | 7 | 17 | 0.189 (− 0.124, 0.502) | − 0.223 (− 0.580, 0.134) |
# Studies number of studies, # ES number of effect sizes, mean d mean effect size (Cohen’s d), CI confidence interval, β 1 estimated regression coefficient, df degrees of freedom, level 2 variance variance within studies, level 3 variance variance between studies
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
+ p < .1
aOmnibus test of al regression coefficients of the model
b p value of the omnibus test