Table 1.
Fluoroquinolone and glycopeptide resistance nanomachines (resistance mechanisms and associated regulatory systems) in staphylococci and enterococci of animal and/or human origin
| Resistance (or increased resistance) to: | Mechanism of resistance | Resistance gene(s) | Antibiotic receptor molecule, or efflux/transporter protein and (family) | Regulatory systems controlling expression of resistance genes (regulator family) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fluoroquinolones | MDR active efflux/transport |
norA
norB norC |
NorA (MFS) NorB (MFS) NorC (MFS) |
MgrA (formerly NorR)(MarR-like) ArlSR (TCS) NorG (GntR-like) |
Ubukata et al. (1989) Yoshida et al. (1990) Kaatz et al. (1991) Kaatz et al. (1993) Fournier et al. (2000) Fournier and Hooper (2000) Truong-Bolduc et al. (2003) Truong-Bolduc et al. (2003) Kaatz et al. (2005b) Truong-Boldoc et al. (2006) Truong-Boldoc and Hooper (2007) Ding et al. (2008) Santos Costa et al. (2013) Correira et al. (2017) |
| mepA | MepA (MATE) | MepR (MarR-like) | Kaatz et al. (2005a) Kaatz et al. (2006) |
||
| mdeA | MdeA (MFS) | Huang et al. (2004) | |||
| lmrS | LmrS (MFS) | Floyd et al. (2010) | |||
| sdrM | SdrM (MFS) | Yamada et al. (2006) | |||
| efmA | EfmA (MFS) | Nishioka et al. (2009) | |||
| efrAB | EfrAB (ABC transporter) | Lee et al. (2003) | |||
| Unknown | cfx-ofx | Unknown | Trucksis et al. (1991) | ||
| Gyrase protection | qnr-like | Qnr E.faecalis | Arsene and Leclercq (2007) | ||
| Glycopeptides | |||||
| Vancomycin | Types A-E, G. 1. Target modification; 2. Removal of pre-existing susceptible targets |
Type A: vanRSHAXYZ Type B: vanRSYWHBX Type C: vanCXYTRS Type D: vanRSYHDX Type E: vanEXYTRS Type G: vanURSYWGXYT |
VanS | VanS (S) VanR (R) (TCS) |
Courvalin (2006) Depardieu et al. (2007) Wright (2011) Phillips-Jones et al. (2017a) Hughes et al. (2017) Phillips-Jones et al. (2017b) |
| Target protection (cell wall thickening) |
vraTSR
graSR walKR clpP stp1 cmk rpoB |
Unknown | VraSR GraSR WalKR RpoB |
Howden et al. (2010) Hiramatsu et al. (2014) Hu et al. (2016) |
|
| Teicoplanin and methicillin | Cell wall anchored proteins |
icaADBC,
spa, sasF sarS |
TcaR | TcaR | Chang et al. (2013, 2014) Grove (2013) |
MDR multidrug resistance protein, TCS two-compartment signal transduction system, MFS Major Facilitator Superfamily of membrane proteins, MATE Multi-Antimicrobial Extrusion protein
Van types C, E and G contain one gene for vanX and vanY peptidase and carboxypeptidase activities—in the other Types, two separate genes encode these two activities