Table 1. Summary of procedure characteristics.

Procedure	Targets	Limitations	Size of interbody	Risk of subsidence	Logistical requirements	Risks
ALIF	L4–S1, can reach L2–3 with extensive vascular dissection	Previous abdominal surgery	Largest	Low; stand-alone	Frequently requires an approach surgeon	3% vascular injury; 2% retrograde ejaculation
LLIF	T12–L5	Previous retroperitoneal surgery; transitional anatomy	Large	Low; with wider stand-alone implants	Neuromonitoring	0.7–30% transient neurological symptoms
OLIF	L1–S1	Grade 2 or higher spondylolisthesis; high-grade central canal stenosis	Medium	High; without pedicle screws	L5–S1 may require additional training or an approach surgeon	6.1–21.4% transient neurological symptoms; 1.6% vascular injury

ALIF, anterior lumbar interbody fusion; LLIF, lateral lumbar interbody fusion; OLIF, oblique lumbar interbody fusion.