Fig. 1.

a Hickok’s (2014) neurocognitive model of speech processing (adopted from Hickok, 2014, with minor modifications) recruits phonemes only on the speech production route, whereas speech perception and lexical representations are assumed to operate at the level of (demi-)syllables. b Phonemes as postaccess codes model (Morton & Long, 1976; Warren, 1976), in which lexical representations are accessed via (allo)phones, with phoneme representations activated after a lexical representation has been retrieved. In both models, the red dotted box includes representations involved narrowly into speech perception/word identification, whereas a blue solid box includes representations available more broadly for language comprehension, including higher-level morphosyntactic and semantic computations (not shown). (Colour figure online)