Table 2.
Associations between socio-demographic, behavioural and health characteristics and psychological distress, Manicaland, Zimbabwe, 2009–2011
| Characteristic | Men (n = 4878) | Women (n = 7870) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. (%) | Adjusted odds ratio (95% CI) | No. (%) | Adjusted odds ratio (95% CI) | |||
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |||
| Socio-demographic characteristics | ||||||
| Site type | ||||||
| Small towns | 39 (4.5) | 0.90 (0.61–1.33) | 0.78 (0.38–1.61) | 185 (13.5) | 1.06 (0.88–1.28) | 0.92 (0.64–1.32) |
| Agricultural estates | 72 (5.2) | 1.05 (0.75–1.45) | 0.97 (0.55–1.73) | 229 (12.0) | 0.89 (0.75–1.06) | 0.80 (0.59–1.05) |
| Roadside trading centers | 31 (3.1) | 0.61 (0.41–0.95) | 0.78 (0.48–1.28) | 203 (12.5) | 0.92 (0.76–1.10) | 1.16 (0.91–1.47) |
| Subsistence farming areas | 81 (5.0) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 395 (13.4) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Interview date | ||||||
| January–March | 42 (3.4) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 245 (11.6) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| April–June | 64 (5.5) | 1.65 (1.11–2.45) | 1.54 (0.98–2.44) | 292 (13.8) | 1.25 (1.04–1.49) | 1.33 (1.06-1.69) |
| July–September | 44 (3.9) | 1.15 (0.75–1.78) | 1.11 (0.60–2.07) | 211 (13.0) | 1.16 (0.95–1.42) | 1.49 (1.09-2.03) |
| October–December | 73 (5.4) | 1.63 (1.11–2.41) | 1.75 (0.85–3.58) | 264 (13.2) | 1.22 (1.01–1.47) | 1.46 (0.99-2.16) |
| Age-group | ||||||
| 15–24 | 93 (4.5) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 207 (8.2) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| 25–34 | 56 (4.2) | 0.92 (0.65–1.29) | 0.72 (0.49–1.04) | 286 (12.5) | 1.59 (1.32–1.93) | 1.07 (0.87-1.33) |
| 35–44 | 49 (5.2) | 1.17 (0.82–1.67) | 0.73 (0.49–1.11) | 276 (17.2) | 2.33 (1.92–2.82) | 1.39 (1.11–1.75) |
| 45–54 | 25 (4.7) | 1.03 (0.66–1.62) | 0.65 (0.38–1.10) | 243 (16.7) | 2.25 (1.84–2.74) | 1.08 (0.83–1.40) |
| Education | ||||||
| None or primary | 48 (5.3) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 487 (17.8) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Secondary | 171 (4.5) | 0.87 (0.61–1.23) | 0.99 (0.68–1.43) | 521 (10.4) | 0.66 (0.57–0.77) | 0.66 (0.56–0.78) |
| Higher | 4 (2.5) | 0.47 (0.17–1.31) | 0.59 (0.21–1.71) | 4 (3.9) | 0.22 (0.08–0.59) | 0.29 (0.10–0.81) |
| Employment status | ||||||
| Unemployed | 75 (4.3) | 1 (Ref) | – | 816 (14.8) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Employed | 148 (4.7) | 1.11 (0.83–1.47) | – | 196 (8.4) | 0.57 (0.48–0.67) | 0.63 (0.53–0.76) |
| Marital status | ||||||
| Single | 95 (4.5) | 1.11 (0.75–1.66) | – | 75 (5.7) | 0.50 (0.38–0.65) | 0.74 (0.56–0.99) |
| Married | 113 (4.4) | 1 (Ref) | – | 627 (12.5) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Divorced or separated | 9 (6.5) | 1.51 (0.75–3.05) | – | 119 (19.0) | 1.61 (1.29–2.00) | 1.69 (1.35–2.13) |
| Widowed | 6 (7.5) | 1.70 (0.72–4.02) | – | 191 (20.7) | 1.59 (1.31–1.93) | 1.44 (1.17–1.77) |
| Religion | ||||||
| Traditional | 12 (15.8) | 4.79 (2.48–9.28) | 2.53 (1.25–5.14) | 9 (31.0) | 3.37 (1.51–7.48) | 1.74 (0.75–4.06) |
| Christian | 87 (3.7) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 442 (11.2) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Spiritual | 74 (5.9) | 1.62 (1.18–2.23) | 1.56 (1.12–2.18) | 423 (15.7) | 1.50 (1.30–1.74) | 1.36 (1.17–1.58) |
| Other | 24 (4.13) | 1.11 (0.70–1.76) | 0.97 (0.60–1.55) | 118 (11.2) | 1.04 (0.84–1.29) | 0.98 (0.78–1.22) |
| None | 26 (4.0) | 1.07 (0.68–1.67) | 0.63 (0.38–1.03) | 20 (14.4) | 1.39 (0.85–2.25) | 0.78 (0.46–1.33) |
| Community participation | ||||||
| Church group | ||||||
| No | 113 (6.6) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 256 (16.9) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Yes | 110 (3.5) | 0.51 (0.39–0.67) | 0.39 (0.28–0.53) | 756 (11.9) | 0.79 (0.73–0.85) | 0.83 (0.76–0.90) |
| Social group | ||||||
| No | 124 (4.2) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 340 (11.3) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Yes | 99 (5.2) | 1.24 (0.94–1.62) | 1.44 (1.09–1.91) | 672 (13.8) | 1.05 (0.98–1.13) | 1.09 (1.01–1.18) |
| Health-related behaviours | ||||||
| Alcohol consumption | ||||||
| No bar visits or <3 drinks | 140 (4.2) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 991 (12.7) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Bar visits and ≥3 drinks | 83 (5.4) | 1.31 (0.97–1.75) | 1.79 (1.29–2.48) | 21 (24.1) | 1.67 (1.01–2.76) | 1.11 (0.63–1.96) |
| Drugs for pleasure | ||||||
| No | 198 (5.2) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 991 (12.7) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Yes | 25 (2.4) | 0.43 (0.28–0.66) | 0.35 (0.22–0.55) | 21 (41.2) | 4.12 (2.33–7.27) | 3.74 (2.01–6.93) |
| Health conditions | ||||||
| Sexually transmitted infectionsa | ||||||
| No | 195 (4.2) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 817 (11.3) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Yes | 28 (10.0) | 2.54 (1.65–3.90) | 2.45 (1.56–3.85) | 195 (29.6) | 3.09 (2.57–3.71) | 2.76 (2.28–3.34) |
| HIV infection | ||||||
| No | 181 (4.3) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) | 737 (11.5) | 1 (Ref) | 1 (Ref) |
| Yes | 42 (6.8) | 1.66 (1.15–2.40) | 1.51 (1.02–2.24) | 275 (19.0) | 1.63 (1.39–1.90) | 1.24 (1.05–1.48) |
Model 1 includes adjustment for age. Model 2 includes all variables with p < 0.2 in Model 1
CI confidence interval
aSexually transmitted infections based on self-reported symptoms (sores, discharge or pain)