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. 2018 Apr 17;8:6072. doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-24536-3

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© The Author(s) 2018

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Putative model illustrating signaling cascades of Al³⁺- induced exudation of citrate from stylo roots. Al³⁺ interacts with a receptor on the plasma membrane to initiate a signaling pathway. Al³⁺ signal is transmitted via heterotrimeric G-proteins, inositol trisphosphate (IP₃), diacylglycerol (DAG), Ca²⁺ and protein kinases (PK), leading to the activation of transcription and anion channels in plasma membrane, and resulting in citrate secretion from stylo roots.