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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Apr 18.
Published in final edited form as: Lancet Glob Health. 2018 Feb 26;6(4):e436–e446. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30002-0

Table 1.

Comparison of characteristics of participants by case-control status and by stroke type

Stroke status
Haemorrhagic stroke status
Ischaemic stroke status
Available
data (n)		 Control
(n=2118)		 Case
(n=2118)		 p value Available
data (n)		 Control
(n=682)		 Case
(n=682)		 p value Available
data (n)		 Control
(n=1430)		 Case
(n=1430)		 p value
Country, Ghana 2118   926 (44%)   917 (43%)   0.39 682 362 (53%) 360 (53%)   0.82 1430   561 (39%)   555 (39%)   0.47
Gender, male 2118 1192 (56%) 1192 (56%)   ·· 682 428 (63%) 428 (63%)   ·· 1430   762 (53%)   762 (53%)   ··
Age (years) 2118     57.8 (13.7)     59.0 (13.8) <0.0001 682   52.4 (12.8)   53.4 (12.8) <0.0001 1430     60.4 (13.3)     61.6 (13.5) <0.0001
Age >65 years 2118   623 (29%)   676 (32%) <0.0001 682 106 (16%) 110 (16%)   0.54 1430   515 (36%)   562 (39%) <0.0001
Domicile
 Rural 2112   302 (14%)   142 (7%) <0.0001 682   83 (12%)   42 (6%)   0.02 1424   216 (15%)     98 (7%) <0.0001
 Semi-urban 2112   520 (25%)   574 (27%)   ·· 682 158 (23%) 182 (27%)   ·· 1424   360 (25%)   390 (27%)   ··
 Urban 2112 1290 (61%) 1396 (66%)   ·· 682 441 (65%) 458 (67%)   ·· 1424   848 (59%)   936 (66%)   ··
Monthly income >US$100 2062   905 (44%) 1169 (57%) <0.0001 658 303 (46%) 376 (57%) <0.0001 1398   600 (43%)   788 (56%) <0.0001
Education (some) 2104 1692 (80%) 1761 (84%)   0.002 680 584 (86%) 606 (89%)   0.057 1418 1103 (78%) 1150 (81%)   0.01
Hypertension 2101 1210 (58%) 1998 (95%) <0.0001 680 352 (52%) 664 (98%) <0.0001 1415   855 (60%) 1329 (94%) <0.0001
Dyslipidaemia 2118 1296 (61%) 1661 (78%) <0.0001 682 427 (63%) 509 (75%) <0.0001 1430   865 (60%) 1147 (80%) <0.0001
Diabetes 2112   281 (13%)   800 (38%) <0.0001 682   74 (11%) 185 (27%) <0.0001 1424   208 (15%)   612 (43%) <0.0001
Cardiac disease 2091   111 (5%)   249 (12%) <0.0001 675   29 (4%)   45 (7%)   0.068 1410     80 (6%)   203 (14%) <0.0001
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 2062       1.3 (0.4)       1.3 (0.5) <0.0001 664     1.4 (0.4)     1.4 (0.5)   0.67 1392       1.4 (0.5)       1.2 (0.5) <0.0001
HDL cholesterol ≤1.03 mmol/L 2062   495 (24%)   697 (34%) <0.0001 664 159 (24%) 162 (24%)   0.90 1392   335 (24%)   535 (38%) <0.0001
LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 2060       3.2 (1.2)       3.2 (1.3)   0.14 662     3.2 (1.2)     3.4 (1.4)   0.09 1392       3.1 (1.2)       3.2 (1.3)   0.55
LDL cholesterol ≥34 mmol/L 2060   824 (40%)   853 (41%)   0.38 662 282 (43%) 292 (44%)   0.64 1392   539 (39%)   558 (40%)   0.48
LDL:HDL ratio 2031       2.6 (1.4)       2.9 (1.8) <0.0001 653     2.6 (1.3)     2.8 (2.0)   0.04 1372       2.6 (1.4)       3.0 (1.7) <0.0001
LDL:HDL ratio >2.96 2031   646 (32%)   778 (38%) <0.0001 653 218 (33%) 221 (34%)   0.90 1372   425 (31%)   556 (41%) <0.0001
LDL:HDL ratio
 ≤2.00 2031   747 (37%)   609 (30%) <0.0001 653 233 (36%) 223 (34%)   0.65 1372   512 (37%)   384 (28%) <0.0001
 2.01–2.96 2031   640 (32%)   644 (32%)   ·· 653 202 (31%) 210 (32%)   ·· 1372   435 (32%)   432 (31%)   ··
 ≥2.97 2031   644 (32%)   778 (38%)   ·· 653 218 (33%) 220 (34%)   ·· 1372   425 (31%)   556 (41%)   ··
Total cholesterol (mmol/L) 2109       5.1 (1.3)       5.1 (1.5)   0.52 680     5.1 (1.3)     5.2 (1.5)   0.07 1423       5.1 (1.3)       5.0 (1.5)   0.66
Total cholesterol ≥5.2 mmol/L 2109   877 (42%)   953 (45%)   0.02 680 286 (42%) 326 (48%)   0.04 1423   586 (41%)   625 (44%)   0.15
Triglyceride (mmol/L) 2102       1.2 (0.6)       1.5 (1.0) <0.0001 676     1.1 (0.6)     1.4 (1.0) <0.0001 1420       1.2 (0.6)       1.5 (1.0) <0.0001
Triglyceride ≥1.7 mmol/L 2102   298 (14%)   561 (27%) <0.0001 676   87 (13%) 157 (23%) <0.0001 1420   210 (15%)   403 (28%) <0.0001
WHR 1944       0.92 (0.09)       0.94 (0.08) <0.0001 647     0.90 (0.08)     0.93 (0.07) <0.0001 1291       0.92 (0.09)       0.94 (0.08) <0.0001
WHR raised 1944 1328 (68%) 1582 (81%) <0.0001 647 386 (60%) 511 (79%) <0.0001 1291   939 (73%) 1068 (83%) <0.0001
WHR
 ≤0.90 1944   848 (44%)   552 (28%) <0.0001 647 339 (52%) 203 (31%) <0.0001 1291   506 (39%)   349 (27%) <0.0001
 0.91–0.96 1944   591 (30%)   721 (37%)   ·· 647 181 (28%) 244 (38%)   ·· 1291   407 (32%)   474 (37%)   ··
 ≥0.97 1944   505 (26%)   671 (35%)   ·· 647 127 (20%) 200 (31%)   ·· 1291   378 (29%)   469 (36%)   ··
WHR, lowest vs highest thirds 1226   462 (38%)   671 (55%) <0.0001 402 115 (29%) 204 (51%) <0.0001 515   218 (42%)   291 (57%) <0.0001
WHR, first vs second and third thirds 1944 1096 (56%) 1392 (72%) <0.0001 647 308 (48%) 445 (69%) <0.0001 1291   785 (61%)   942 (73%) <0.0001
BMI (kg/m2) 1461     26.5 (5.8)     26.6 (5.1)   0.62 474   26.9 (6.1)   26.3 (5.1)   0.10 918     26.2 (5.7)     26.7 (5.1)   0.08
BMI >30 kg/m2 1461   333 (23%)   314 (21%)   0.44 474 120 (25%)   92 (19%)   0.03 918   197 (21%)   207 (23%)   0.62
Physical activity (some activity) 2059 2010 (98%) 1960 (95%) <0.0001 672 659 (98%) 642 (96%)   0.01 1381 1345 (97%) 1313 (95%)   0.002
Tobacco use in past 12 months 2050     29 (1%)     70 (3%) <0.0001 667     9 (1%)   33 (5%) <0.0001 1377     19 (1%)     36 (3%)   0.02
Tobacco (any use) 2075   162 (8%)   205 (10%)   0.02 670   42 (6%)   70 (10%)   0.006 1399   120 (9%)   134 (10%)   0.37
Alcohol (current user) 2083   321 (15%)   398 (19%)   0.001 672 118 (18%) 179 (27%) <0.0001 1405   202 (14%)   218 (16%)   0.39
Alcohol (any use) 2083   671 (32%)   762 (37%)   0.001 672 231 (34%) 292 (43%) <0.0001 1405   438 (31%)   468 (33%)   0.17
Alcohol use
 Never 1752 1433 (82%) 1351 (77%) <0.0001 562 439 (78%) 392 (70%) <0.0001 1184   989 (84%)   953 (80%)   0.01
 Ever low 1752   310 (18%)   357 (20%)   ·· 562 121 (22%) 147 (26%)   ·· 1184   188 (16%)   210 (18%)   ··
 Ever high 1752       9 (1%)     44 (3%)   ·· 562     2 (<1%)   23 (4%)   ·· 1184       7 (1%)     21 (2%)   ··
Stress 1945   296 (15%)   461 (24%) <0.0001 628 109 (17%) 153 (24%)   0.004 1311   188 (14%)   307 (23%) <0.0001
Cancer 2039       4 (<1%)     10 (<1%)   0.12 657     0 (0%)     2 (<1%) NA* 1376       4 (<1%)     10 (1%)   0.27
Depression 1915   140 (7%)   170 (9%)   0.08 616   43 (7%)   54 (9%)   0.28 1293     97 (8%)   116 (9%)   0.20
Family history of CVD 2088   606 (29%)   852 (41%) <0.0001 674 213 (32%) 283 (42%) <0.0001 1408   391 (28%)   565 (40%) <0.0001
Added salt at the table 2036   118 (6%)   173 (8%)   0.001 664   45 (7%)   68 (10%)   0.03 1366     74 (5%)   105 (8%)   0.02
Added salt at the table
 Never or rarely 2036 1653 (81%) 1433 (70%) <0.0001 664 545 (82%) 464 (70%) <0.0001 1366 1104 (81%)   966 (71%) <0.0001
 Occasionally 2036   265 (13%)   432 (21%)   ·· 664   73 (11%) 133 (20%)   ·· 1366   190 (14%)   296 (22%)   ··
 Very often 2036   118 (6%)   171 (8%)   ·· 664   46 (7%)   67 (10%)   ·· 1366     72 (5%)   104 (8%)   ··
Regular green leafy vegetable consumption 1966 1606 (82%) 1390 (71%) <0.0001 646 529 (82%) 450 (70%) <0.0001 1314 1072 (82%)   934 (71%) <0.0001
Regular whole grains consumption 1973 1636 (83%) 1693 (86%)   0.01 646 547 (85%) 552 (85%)   0.75 1321 1085 (82%) 1137 (86%)   0.006
Regular legumes consumption 1954 1258 (64%) 1303 (67%)   0.13 640 428 (67%) 438 (68%)   0.63 1308   825 (63%)   862 (66%)   0.14
Regular fruit consumption 1960 1703 (87%) 1627 (83%)   0.001 641 563 (88%) 526 (82%)   0.004 1313 1134 (86%) 1096 (83%)   0.04
Regular sugar consumption 1950   700 (36%)   614 (31%)   0.004 642 260 (40%) 224 (35%)   0.05 1302   438 (34%)   387 (30%)   0.04
Regular meat consumption 1972 1564 (79%) 1644 (83%)   0.001 650 532 (82%) 555 (85%)   0.09 1316 1026 (78%) 1083 (82%)   0.005
Regular fish consumption 1964 1827 (93%) 1838 (94%)   0.51 647 597 (92%) 610 (94%)   0.20 1311 1223 (93%) 1223 (93%) 1.00

Data are number (%) or mean (SD). Some percentages do not add up to 100 because of rounding. p values reported for paired t test, McNemar χ2, or test of marginal homogeneity. WHR=waist-to-hip ratio. BMI=body-mass index. NA=not applicable. CVD=cardiovascular disease.

*

χ2 could not be computed because a cell had a 0 value.