. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Apr 20.

Published in final edited form as: Environ Res Lett. 2018 Apr 17;13(4):045011. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aab047

Table 2.

Association between microenvironment, environmental exposure & under-fives’ health symptoms

	HAP-related									Other

Dependent variables	Respiratory infection^‡		Illness with cough^‡		Difficulty breathing^‡		Dry eyes^‡			Fever^‡
Explanatory variables
Housing structure
Dwelling type
Multiple house	0.44	0.41	0.33	0.35	0.89^*	0.85	1.31^**	1.32^**	0.27	0.33
Multiple house	(0.83)	(0.86)	(0.43)	(0.45)	(0.51)	(0.52)	(0.55)	(0.56)	(0.47)	(0.49)
Group of multiple enclosed dwellings	1.89^***	1.88^***	0.57^**	0.56^*	1.05^***	1.03^***	0.71^*	0.87^**	0.64^**	0.82^**
Group of multiple enclosed dwellings	(0.61)	(0.65)	(0.28)	(0.29)	(0.36)	(0.38)	(0.41)	(0.43)	(0.31)	(0.32)
Group of single enclosed dwellings	0.88	0.86	0.48^*	0.48	0.63^*	0.62	0.96^**	1.00^**	0.65^**	0.63^*
Group of single enclosed dwellings	(0.58)	(0.62)	(0.29)	(0.30)	(0.37)	(0.39)	(0.44)	(0.45)	(0.33)	(0.34)
Cooking location
Partially outdoors	0.54		−0.65^*		−0.17		−0.24		−0.50
Partially outdoors	(0.51)		(0.37)		(0.46)		(0.46)		(0.41)
Kitchen structure outside dwellings	0.81	0.72	0.44	1.12^**	0.72^*	1.47^**	−0.43	0.09	0.50	1.59^***
Kitchen structure outside dwellings	(0.50)	(0.79)	(0.33)	(0.47)	(0.42)	(0.58)	(0.42)	(0.75)	(0.37)	(0.54)
Cooking inside dwelling	0.90^**	0.00	0.57^*	1.29^***	0.53	0.99^**	0.27	0.40	0.55^*	1.37^***
Cooking inside dwelling	(0.45)	(0.48)	(0.30)	(0.37)	(0.37)	(0.43)	(0.38)	(0.47)	(0.32)	(0.40)
Cooking area structure
Main floor material
Clay tiles, bricks and other materials	0.66^*	0.06	0.30	0.32	0.17	−0.10	0.50	−0.52	0.21	0.48
Clay tiles, bricks and other materials	(0.37)	(0.70)	(0.31)	(0.45)	(0.37)	(0.58)	(0.42)	(0.87)	(0.31)	(0.48)
Cement	−0.51	−0.78^*	0.11	0.21	0.06	0.08	0.30	0.15	−0.03	0.12
Cement	(0.39)	(0.44)	(0.25)	(0.26)	(0.29)	(0.31)	(0.39)	(0.43)	(0.25)	(0.27)
Kitchen roof		−1.22		0.08		−0.70		−1.32		−0.12
Kitchen roof		(1.00)		(0.52)		(0.71)		(1.05)		(0.62)
Gap between walls and ceiling		0.46		0.44^*		0.64^**		0.35		0.45^*
Gap between walls and ceiling		(0.37)		(0.23)		(0.27)		(0.33)		(0.25)
Number of windows		0.51^**		0.15		−0.06		0.39^*		0.10
Number of windows		(0.23)		(0.16)		(0.19)		(0.23)		(0.17)
Ventilation holes		−0.16		−0.64^***		−0.69^***		−0.38		−0.91^***
Ventilation holes		(0.31)		(0.19)		(0.24)		(0.27)		(0.21)
Presence of active chimney		0.37		0.34		0.19		−0.47		−0.14
Presence of active chimney		(0.64)		(0.46)		(0.62)		(0.94)		(0.53)
Environmental exposure
Distance to nearest road (in meters)	0.03^*	0.03^**	0.01	0.01	−0.00	−0.01	0.00	0.00	−0.01	−0.02
Distance to nearest road (in meters)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.01)
Tree cover (%)	0.14^**	0.17^**	0.06	0.02	0.18^***	0.17^***	0.11^**	0.12^*	−0.06	−0.08
Tree cover (%)	(0.06)	(0.08)	(0.04)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.07)	(0.05)	(0.06)
Constant	−3.67	−1.98	1.05	1.75	−0.81	−0.98	−5.77^**	−5.44^*	−1.60	−1.88
Constant	(2.99)	(3.39)	(1.96)	(2.24)	(2.40)	(2.80)	(2.82)	(3.17)	(2.11)	(2.36)

Observations	694	612	694	612	694	612	694	612	694	612

^***

p<0.01,

^**

p<0.05,

p<0.1;

^‡

Column 1 for each health outcome includes fully outdoor cooking, and Column 2 excludes fully outdoor cooking.

The referent categories for dwelling type and kitchen floor are: single house and beaten earth, respectively. For cooking location, fully outdoor cooking and partially outdoor cooking are the referent categories in Models 1 and 2 of each symptom, respectively.

Stove type controlled for as a determinant of HAP exposure.

Household-level characteristics controlled for include: log of per capita total expenditure in the past 4 weeks (in RWF), household size, and per capita weekly charcoal use (in kg).

⁴

Child characteristics controlled for include: age (in months), sex, and health card availability. Main respondent characteristics controlled for include: age, sex and education level.