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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2018 Apr 20.
Published in final edited form as: Environ Res Lett. 2018 Apr 17;13(4):045011. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aab047

Table 3.

Association between microenvironment, environmental and CO exposures & under-fives’ health symptoms

HAP-related Other
Dependent variables Respiratory infection‡ Illness with cough‡ Difficulty breathing‡ Dry eyes‡ Fever‡
Explanatory variables
Pollutant exposure
Log of daily average CO concentration of caregiver (in ppm) 0.11 0.22 0.16 0.24 0.40*** 0.48*** 0.36** 0.36* −0.08 −0.11
(0.19) (0.25) (0.13) (0.15) (0.15) (0.18) (0.17) (0.19) (0.15) (0.17)
Housing structure
Dwelling type
 Multiple house 1.18 1.23 −0.85 −0.84 −0.02 −0.21 1.09 1.27 0.23 0.34
(1.62) (1.86) (0.59) (0.66) (0.69) (0.81) (0.74) (0.93) (0.61) (0.70)
 Group of multiple enclosed dwellings 2.69**r 2.93** r −0.20 −0.28 0.68 0.62 0.47 0.85 0.47 0.67
(1.18) (1.34) (0.37) (0.40) (0.44) (0.46) (0.61) (0.76) (0.44) (0.53)
 Group of single enclosed dwellings 2.32* 2.43* −0.47 −0.27 −0.31 −0.32 1.10 1.51* r 1.03** r 1.39** r
(1.23) (1.43) (0.45) (0.49) (0.56) (0.57) (0.70) (0.82) (0.51) (0.58)
Cooking location
 Partially outdoors 0.35 −0.73 −0.18 −0.35 −0.58
(0.77) (0.47) (0.61) (0.62) (0.57)
 Kitchen structure outside dwellings 1.72** 0.99 0.48 1.11* r 0.70 1.03 0.28 1.19 1.48*** 2.66*** r
(0.71) (1.32) (0.49) (0.61) (0.67) (0.78) (0.68) (0.89) (0.56) (0.71)
 Cooking inside dwelling 0.84 0.12 0.35 1.43*** r 0.36 0.89 0.10 0.77 0.72 2.29*** r
(0.67) (0.82) (0.40) (0.50) (0.52) (0.60) (0.52) (0.61) (0.45) (0.56)
Cooking area structure
Main floor material
 Clay tiles, bricks and other materials 1.07** r 0.59 0.30 1.32* −0.05 0.51 0.98 1.02 0.92* 1.32*
(0.53) (1.64) (0.45) (0.71) (0.58) (0.93) (0.63) (1.15) (0.51) (0.77)
 Cement −0.97* −1.54** r −0.09 0.20 −0.09 0.12 −0.05 −0.17 −0.47 −0.33
(0.56) (0.69) (0.36) (0.40) (0.43) (0.47) (0.54) (0.56) (0.37) (0.42)
Kitchen roof −0.38 1.36* 0.53 −0.27 0.54
(2.38) (0.76) (1.06) (1.50) (0.87)
Gap between walls and ceiling 1.29** 0.78** r 0.77** r 0.05 0.28
(0.54) (0.35) (0.38) (0.48) (0.44)
Number of windows 0.53 −0.23 −0.14 −0.03 −0.47
(0.41) (0.25) (0.27) (0.32) (0.29)
Ventilation holes −0.65 −1.01*** r −0.79** r −0.37 −1.31*** r
(0.44) (0.30) (0.32) (0.37) (0.32)
Presence of active chimney 1.81** 0.31 1.14 −0.56 −0.74
(0.70) (0.80) (0.76) (1.06) (0.80)
Environmental exposure
Distance to nearest road (in meters) 0.06** r 0.08*** r 0.01 0.01 0.04** 0.04** 0.04* 0.04** −0.00 −0.02
(0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02)
Tree cover (%) 0.24*** r 0.35*** r 0.12* 0.11 0.30*** r 0.37*** r 0.01 0.08 -0.13 −0.19
(0.09) (0.11) (0.06) (0.08) (0.07) (0.09) (0.07) (0.10) (0.10) (0.13)
Constant −12.57*** −11.75** 2.67 2.18 −2.36 −1.88 −6.53* −9.76*** 1.49 −0.95
(4.78) (5.16) (2.57) (3.10) (3.11) (3.66) (3.53) (3.69) (2.64) (3.24)
Observations 367 321 367 321 367 321 367 321 367 321
***

p<0.01,

**

p<0.05,

*

p<0.1;

‡

Column 1 for each health outcome includes fully outdoor cooking, and Column 2 excludes fully outdoor cooking.

1

Coefficients marked ‘r’ are robust in the alternate specification without log of daily average CO concentration of the caregiver.

2

The referent categories for dwelling type and kitchen floor are: single house and beaten earth, respectively. For cooking location, fully outdoor cooking and partially outdoor cooking are the referent categories in Models 1 and 2 of each symptom, respectively.

3

Stove type controlled for as a determinant of HAP exposure.

4

Household-level characteristics controlled for include: log of per capita total expenditure in the past 4 weeks (in RWF), household size, and per capita weekly charcoal consumption (in kg).

5

Child characteristics controlled for include: age (in months) and sex. Caregiver characteristic controlled for: perception about negative health impacts from traditional cooking practices.