Table 1.

Local expressions for “antibiotics” encountered in Chiang Rai.

English	Thai	Explanation
“Antibiotic”	ยาปฏิชีวนะ (“yah pa ti chee wa na”)	Technical term with Pali roots, rarely used (e.g. higher education levels); linked to varied modes of use, e.g. sole dependence on doctors’ advice as well as self-medication for sore throat
“Anti-inflammatory drug”	ยาแก้อักเสบ (“yah kae ak seb”)	Common vernacular expression of antibiotics; sometimes referring to anti-inflammatory drugs; often linked to sore throat, muscle pain, wounds, acne
“Microbe/germ killer”	ยาฆ่าเชื้อ (“yah kah chuea”)	Vernacular description of antibiotics; may also include e.g. stomach medicine or rubbing alcohol; linked to wide range of illnesses including fever in some instances
“Sore throat medication”	ยาแก้เจ็บคอ (“yah kae jeb koh”)	Vernacular description linked to sore throat as commonly treated symptom; can also refer to cough medicine/drops
“Amoxicillin”	แอมม็อกซี่ (“amoxy”)	Vernacular expression of antibiotics as uttered literally, specific reference to antibiotics but relatively uncommon (e.g. higher education, healthcare workers); uses similar to yah pa ti chee wa na
“Medicine that relieves the pain”	[no local language equivalent of Thai “antibiotic” or “anti-inflammatory drug”]	Description of antibiotics without local language equivalent (e.g. Akha, Lahu); linked esp. to use for muscle pain

Note. The order in which these concepts are presented does not imply a hierarchy of the terms, behaviours, or groups.

Source: Authors, based on qualitative analysis.