Table 1.
Age-adjusted baseline characteristics according to frequency of open-flame and/or high-temperature cooking of total meats among participants who consumed red meat, chicken, or fish regularly (≥2 servings/week)a
| Frequency of open-flame and/or high-temperature cooking of total meats (red meat, chicken, and fish)b |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NHS | NHS II |
HPFS |
|||||||
| <4 times/month | 8–11 times/month | >15 times/month | <4 times/month | 8–11 times/month | >15 times/month | <4 times/month | 8–11 times/month | >15 times/month | |
| Number of participantsc | 12,496 | 11,521 | 6,677 | 9,108 | 14,832 | 10,714 | 3,401 | 6,418 | 4,680 |
| Age, years | 62.7 ± 7.1 | 61.1 ± 6.9 | 60.7 ± 6.9 | 46.3 ± 4.7 | 46.0 ± 4.7 | 46.6 ± 4.5 | 64.3 ± 9.4 | 61.9 ± 9.1 | 61.2 ± 8.8 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 25.8 ± 5.0 | 26.4 ± 5.0 | 26.7 ± 5.2 | 25.7 ± 5.8 | 26.4 ± 5.8 | 27.0 ± 6.2 | 25.5 ± 3.4 | 25.9 ± 3.4 | 26.0 ± 3.5 |
| Waist circumference, cm | 85.6 ± 5.3 | 86.1 ± 5.3 | 86.5 ± 5.5 | 85.7 ± 5.6 | 86.8 ± 5.6 | 87.7 ± 5.8 | 94.2 ± 7.4 | 94.7 ± 7.9 | 94.4 ± 8.3 |
| Physical activity, METs/week | 17.1 ± 22.2 | 18.2 ± 20.8 | 21.6 ± 24.5 | 18.5 ± 23.6 | 20.4 ± 23.9 | 26.1 ± 32.0 | 33.7 ± 40.8 | 36.9 ± 39.8 | 41.1 ± 44.7 |
| Alcohol intake, g/day | 4.4 ± 8.7 | 5.7 ± 9.3 | 6.0 ± 9.3 | 3.1 ± 6.7 | 4.5 ± 7.5 | 4.8 ± 7.8 | 9.4 ± 13.8 | 11.8 ± 14.8 | 12.8 ± 15.2 |
| Current smoking | 12 | 12 | 11 | 8 | 9 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 4 |
| White race | 98 | 98 | 97 | 95 | 97 | 96 | 95 | 96 | 96 |
| Family history of diabetes | 25 | 24 | 26 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 20 | 20 | 23 |
| Multivitamin use | 52 | 53 | 54 | 58 | 58 | 60 | 54 | 52 | 55 |
| Any use of postmenopausal hormone | 59 | 62 | 62 | 23 | 25 | 26 | NA | NA | NA |
| Married | 74 | 82 | 82 | 82 | 88 | 87 | 86 | 91 | 91 |
| Dietary intake | |||||||||
| Total energy, kcal/day | 1,671 ± 433 | 1,791 ± 440 | 1,863 ± 459 | 1,700 ± 485 | 1,839 ± 497 | 1,932 ± 517 | 1,869 ± 498 | 2,019 ± 531 | 2,129 ± 553 |
| Total red meat, servings/day | 1.00 ± 0.50 | 1.13 ± 0.50 | 1.11 ± 0.53 | 0.65 ± 0.50 | 0.80 ± 0.52 | 0.82 ± 0.62 | 0.83 ± 0.69 | 1.09 ± 0.77 | 1.07 ± 0.83 |
| Chicken, servings/day | 0.33 ± 0.24 | 0.41 ± 0.25 | 0.52 ± 0.30 | 0.41 ± 0.33 | 0.52 ± 0.35 | 0.69 ± 0.47 | 0.35 ± 0.28 | 0.42 ± 0.27 | 0.55 ± 0.33 |
| Fish, servings/day | 0.20 ± 0.19 | 0.27 ± 0.21 | 0.35 ± 0.27 | 0.18 ± 0.20 | 0.24 ± 0.21 | 0.31 ± 0.29 | 0.22 ± 0.21 | 0.28 ± 0.24 | 0.39 ± 0.32 |
| Total vegetables, servings/day | 2.9 ± 1.4 | 3.4 ± 1.4 | 3.9 ± 1.6 | 2.8 ± 1.8 | 3.3 ± 1.8 | 4.0 ± 2.3 | 2.9 ± 1.5 | 3.2 ± 1.4 | 3.7 ± 1.7 |
| Total fruits, servings/day | 2.2 ± 1.3 | 2.4 ± 1.2 | 2.7 ± 1.3 | 1.1 ± 0.8 | 1.2 ± 0.8 | 1.4 ± 1.0 | 2.3 ± 1.4 | 2.4 ± 1.3 | 2.7 ± 1.5 |
| Total dairy products, servings/day | 2.1 ± 1.1 | 2.1 ± 1.1 | 2.2 ± 1.1 | 2.2 ± 1.5 | 2.3 ± 1.5 | 2.4 ± 1.6 | 1.9 ± 1.2 | 1.9 ± 1.2 | 1.9 ± 1.2 |
| Soda, servings/day | 0.7 ± 0.9 | 0.8 ± 0.9 | 0.9 ± 0.9 | 1.2 ± 1.4 | 1.3 ± 1.4 | 1.4 ± 1.5 | 0.7 ± 0.8 | 0.8 ± 0.9 | 0.9 ± 1.0 |
| Whole grains, g/day | 19.8 ± 13.5 | 18.1 ± 11.3 | 18.9 ± 11.7 | 24.4 ± 15.5 | 22.2 ± 13.2 | 22.8 ± 13.4 | 28.1 ± 18.6 | 24.9 ± 15.9 | 25.7 ± 16.1 |
| Sodium, g/day | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 2.1 ± 0.4 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 2.5 ± 0.5 | 2.4 ± 0.5 |
| Carbohydrate, % energy | 51.6 ± 7.0 | 50.1 ± 6.5 | 50.0 ± 6.7 | 52.1 ± 7.0 | 50.4 ± 6.6 | 50.0 ± 6.7 | 50.6 ± 7.7 | 48.3 ± 6.9 | 48.4 ± 7.2 |
| Protein, % energy | 18.0 ± 2.7 | 18.7 ± 2.5 | 19.8 ± 2.8 | 18.1 ± 3.0 | 18.8 ± 2.8 | 19.7 ± 2.9 | 17.3 ± 2.6 | 18.0 ± 2.5 | 18.9 ± 2.6 |
| Trans fatty acids, % energy | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.4 | 1.4 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.6 | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.3 ± 0.5 |
| P/S ratio | 0.56 ± 0.16 | 0.56 ± 0.14 | 0.58 ± 0.14 | 0.53 ± 0.15 | 0.53 ± 0.13 | 0.54 ± 0.14 | 0.59 ± 0.17 | 0.57 ± 0.15 | 0.60 ± 0.17 |
| AHEId | 46.6 ± 9.4 | 47.4 ± 8.6 | 50.0 ± 8.7 | 48.9 ± 10.3 | 49.6 ± 9.9 | 51.9 ± 10.0 | 47.3 ± 10.0 | 46.8 ± 9.5 | 49.0 ± 9.5 |
Data are mean ± SD or percentage. NA, not applicable; P/S ratio, polyunsaturated fatty acids–to–saturated fatty acids ratio.
aOpen-flame and/or high-temperature cooking of meats included broiling, barbecuing, or roasting of chicken, fish, or red meat.
bNot all the frequency categories (<4, 4–7, 8–11, 12–15, >15 times/month) are shown in the table because of limited space.
cThe total participants were 52,752 women in the NHS, 60,809 women in the NHS II, and 24,679 men in the HPFS.
dAlcohol consumption was not included in the AHEI score.