Table 1.
Selected examples of studies which have used negative control exposure methods
| Exposure | Negative control exposure | Outcome(s) |
|---|---|---|
| Maternal smoking | Paternal smoking | Offspring outcomes: Inattention/hyperactivity15,20 Obesity/adiposity16,22–24 |
| Blood pressure17 | ||
| Gestational diabetes21 | ||
| ADHD symptoms19 | ||
| Cognitive development18 | ||
| Offspring psychotic symptoms46 | ||
| Maternal psychosocial stress | Paternal psychosocial stress | Offspring vascular function54 |
| Maternal smoking during pregnancy | Maternal smoking after pregnancy | Offspring respiratory outcomes39 |
| Offspring psychotic symptoms46 | ||
| Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy | Maternal alcohol consumption before pregnancy | Offspring ADHD symptoms40 |
| Maternal BMI/obesity | Paternal BMI | Offspring BMI/adiposity26–33 |
| Offspring cognitive and psychomotor development55 | ||
| Length of pre-birth inter-pregnancy interval | Length of post-birth inter-pregnancy interval | Risk of schizophrenia in the offspring56 |
| Folic acid supplements in pregnancy | Other supplements in pregnancy | Autism spectrum disorders37 |
| Language development delays38 | ||
| Prescription for trimethoprim 1–3 months before pregnancy | Prescription for trimethoprim 13–15 months before pregnancy | Offspring congenital malformation57 |
| Air pollutant exposure during pregnancy | Air pollutant exposure before and after pregnancy | Offspring autism spectrum disorder41 |
| Exposure to childhood infections | Hospital attendance for broken bones | Multiple sclerosis later in life58 |
| Adherence to prescribed statins and beta blockers | Adherence to other prescribed medication | Long-term mortality after acute myocardial infarction59 |
| Vaccination during flu season | Vaccination outside flu season | Mortality and hospitalization from flu60 |
| Swimmers’ exposure to bacteria in water | Non-swimmers | Gastrointestinal illnesses after an increase in bacteria levels in water61 |